War: What is it good for? (70 page)

6.
RED IN TOOTH AND CLAW

294  “descent with modification”: Charles Darwin,
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
(London: John Murray, 1859), chap. 4.

297  “the mad blood stirring”: Shakespeare,
Romeo and Juliet
(1599), 3.1.4.

299  “civilization by instinct”: Hölldobler and Wilson 2010.

302  “snack food”: Wrangham and Peterson 1996, p. 223.

305  “In all my experience”: Yerkes 1925, chap. 13. Yerkes did not know that Chim was a bonobo. Bonobos had only been recognized as a separate species in 1928, and Yerkes thought he was just dealing with an unusually nice chimp.

310  “the sexiest primate alive”: D. Morris 1967, p. 63. Nearly fifty years of research has left
The Naked Ape
badly out of date, but it is still well worth reading.

310  “The inability”: Diamond 1992, p. 75.

312  “combining [the physique] of a powerful wrestler”: Stringer and Andrews 2012, p. 157.

313  “None of us could paint like that”: This sentiment is regularly attributed to Picasso, but Bahn (2005) suggests that it is apocryphal. Picasso was apparently not very interested in the cave paintings.

319  “the Pacifist's Dilemma”: Pinker 2011, p. 678.

320  “Western, educated”: Henrich et al. 2010.

322  “a state that uses a monopoly”: Pinker 2011, p. 680.

325  “like having two westerners”: Ronald Reagan, March 23, 1983, cited in Gaddis 2005a, p. 225.

326  “Force … the
means
of war”: Clausewitz 1976, p. 75.

327  “if allowed to sample the riches”: Riesman 1964 (first published 1951), p. 64.

327  “the main armament of the Americans”: Stalin to Zhou Enlai, August 1952, quoted from a transcript provided to me by David Holloway.

328  “It was a struggle”: Alina Pienkowska, undated interview, cited in Sebestyen 2009, pp. 217–18.

328  “We can't go on like this”: Gorbachev 1995, p. 165.

328  “I was suspicious of Gorbachev's motives”: Bush and Scowcroft 1998, pp. 13–14.

329  “Did we see what was coming”: Ibid., p. xiii.

329  “popular uprising against an oligarchic system”: Hungarian report, June 1989, cited in G. Stokes 1993, p. 100.

329  “We can't do anything”: Interview on the CNN television series
Cold War
(1998), episode 23, cited in Gaddis 2005a, p. 241.

330  “How could you shoot”: Gorbachev, interview on the CNN television series
Cold War
(1998), episode 23, cited in Gaddis 2005a, p. 250.

7.
THE LAST BEST HOPE OF EARTH

332  “Lock your doors and load your guns”: City attorney of San Bernardino, California, quoted in Friend 2013, p. 29.

339  “You can't get there from here”: I owe this insight to Dick Granger, December 1983.

340  “assum[e] responsibility”: Zalmay Khalilzad and Scooter Libby, February 18 draft of the 1992
Defense Planning Guidance,
www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb245/index.htm
.

340  “literally a Pax Americana”: Senator Joseph Biden, quoted in
Washington Post,
March 11, 1992, p. A1,
www.yale.edu/strattech/92dpg.html
.

341  “People say, ‘It is a terrible thing'”: Unnamed French official, quoted in
Financial Times,
October 17, 2002, and cited in Kagan 2003, p. 63.

342  “The final goal”: Helmut Schlesinger (1994), cited in Deo et al. 2011, p. 16.

343  “Almost no modern fiat currency”: Deo et al. 2011, p. 1.

344  “Free Speech Now”: Quoted from Belarusian News Photos, August 2012,
www.bnp.by/shvedy-dejstvitelno-sbrosili-na-belarus-plyushevyx-medvedej-na-parashyutax
.

344  “On major strategic and international questions”: Kagan 2003, p. 3.

345  “We have no eternal allies”: Lord Palmerston, speech to the House of Commons, reported in
Hansard,
March 1, 1848, col. 122.

346  “the Great Game”: Rudyard Kipling,
Kim
(London: Macmillan, 1901), chap. 12.

348  “Under your supervision”: Osama bin Laden, “Letter to America,” mid-November 2002, cited in
www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver
.

349  “Then … history would make a new turn”: Ayman al-Zawahiri,
Knights Under the Prophet's Banner
(2001), cited in L. Wright 2006, p. 46.

349  “A stable Afghanistan”: Special Adviser Richard Holbrooke, cited in Sanger 2012, p. 132.

349  “send forth the news”: President George W. Bush, speech at the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, November 6, 2003,
http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106–2.html
.

349  “modernization is not”: Ibid.

350  “disrupt, dismantle, and defeat al Qaeda”: President Barack Obama, speech at the White House, March 27, 2009,
www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-on-a-New-Strategy-for-Afghanistan-and-Pakistan/
.

351  “We lived in momentary expectation”: Major F. M. Crum (First Battalion, King's Royal Rifles),
Memoirs of an Unconventional Soldier
(1903), cited in Citino 2002, p. 60.

351  “Sir, we patrol until we hit an IED”: Unnamed U.S. marine to Brigadier General Larry Nicholson, February 2009, quoted in Chandrasekaran 2012, p. 4.

351  “the dark side”: Vice President Dick Cheney, interview on
Meet the Press,
NBC, September 16, 2001, available at
www.youtube.com/watch?v=X56PBAEkzYg
.

352  “would be one of the worst”: Henry Kissinger to Michael Gerson, September 2005, cited in Woodward 2006, p. 409.

353  “When it comes to predicting”: Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, speech at West Point, February 25, 2011,
www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1539
.

356  “This was the week that changed the world”: President Richard Nixon, toast at a dinner in Shanghai, February 27, 1972, cited in D. Reynolds 2000, p. 329.

357  “Chimerica”: Ferguson and Schularick 2007.

357  “the scale turns and the reaction follows”: Clausewitz,
On War,
bk. 7, chap. 5, trans. in Howard and Paret 1976, p. 528.

357  “the China Price”:
BusinessWeek,
December 6, 2004, p. 104.

358  “After … 1989 capitalism saved China”: Foreign Secretary David Miliband, interview with
Guardian,
cited in “May the Good China Preserve Us,”
Economist,
May 21, 2009,
www.economist.com/node/13701737
.

358  “Peaceful Rise”: Zheng 2005.

358  “Peaceful Development”: Dai 2010.

358  “benignant sympathy of her example”: John Quincy Adams, speech to the House of Representatives, July 4, 1821,
http://fff.org/explore-freedom/article/john-quincy-adams-foreign-policy-1821/
.

359  “über-realist power”: R. Kaplan 2012, p. 196.

359  “The inevitable analogy”: Luttwak 2012, p. 56.

359  “is looking for more strategic space”: Shi Yinhong, professor of international relations at Renmin University, May 28, 2013, cited in
www.nytimesxom/2013/05/29/world/asia/china-to-seek-more-equal-footing-with-us-in-talks.html?ref=world&_r=1&
.

360  “China Ready for Worst-Case Diaoyu Scenario”:
Global Times,
January 11, 2013,
www.globaltimes.cn/content/755170.shtml
.

360  “that Australia will at some stage”: Abigail 2012, p. 74.

360  “The Government's judgement”: Commonwealth of Australia 2009, p. 43.

361  “Australia and the United States”: Hawke and Smith 2012, p. 53.

361  “Let there be no doubt”: Barack Obama, speech to the Australian Parliament, Canberra, November 17, 2011,
www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/11/17/remarks-president-obama-australian-parliament
.

361  “Whereas the Chinese saw”: Rory Medcalf, director of the international security program of the Lowy Institute, Sydney, May 7, 2013,
http://thediplomat.com/2013/05/07/breaking-down-australias-defense-white-paper-2013/
.

361  “U.S. power … is on the decline”: Lieutenant General Qi Jianguo, “An Unprecedented Great Changing Situation,”
Study Times,
January 21, 2013, trans. by James Bellacqua and Daniel Hartnett at
www.cna.org/sites/default/files/research/DQR-2013-U-004445-Final.pdf
.

361  “If we get China wrong”: Unidentified American diplomat, quoted in Sanger 2012, p. xix.

362  
Foreign Policy
magazine asked a group:
www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/02/22/the_future_of_war
.

362  the Pew Research Center found:
http://people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/692.pdf
.

362  “AirSea Battle”: Krepinevich 2010; van Tol et al. 2010.

362  “strengthened its military deployments”: Hu Jintao, comments in 2001 in private discussions, trans. in Gilley and Nathan 2003, pp. 235–36.

364  “third industrial revolution”: Rifkin 2011.

366  “dramatic changes”: O'Hanlon 2013, pp. 30, v.

366  “The most significant threat”: Admiral Michael Mullen, interview with CNN, August 25, 2010,
www.cnn.com/2010/US/08/27/debt.security.mullen/index.html
.

367  “We are headed into uncharted waters”: National Intelligence Council 2012, pp. v, 3.

367  “game-changers” and “arc of instability”: National Intelligence Council 2008, p. 61.

368  “the five-year mean global temperature”: Hansen et al. 2013, p. 1.

369  “major powers might be drawn into conflict”: National Intelligence Council 2012, p. xii.

371  “patterns of life”: Unclassified briefing by Colonel James Hecker, 432nd Air Wing, Creech Air Force Base, Nevada, March 5, 2013.

372  “maintain complete silence”: Quoted in Byman 2013, p. 40.

372  “between 2015 and 2025”: Joint Forces Command 2003, p. 5.

372  “It is doubtful”: Boot 2006, p. 442.

373  “on the loop”: U.S. Air Force 2009, p. 41.

373  “We already don't understand Microsoft Windows”: Mark Gubrud, research associate at Princeton University's Program on Science and Global Security, interview with
Mother Jones,
May 3, 2013,
www.motherjones.com/politics/2013/05/campaign-stop-killer-robots-military-drones
.

373  “lethal autonomous robotics”: United Nations 2013.

374  “human space”: Adams 2011, p. 5.

375  “the key weapon”: G. Friedman 2009, pp. 202, 211.

380  “a future period”: Kurzweil 2005, pp. 5, 24.

380  “the Rapture for Nerds”: MacLeod 1998, p. 115.

380  “digito-futuristic nonsense”: Evgeny Morozov,
www.newrepublic.com/article/books-and-arts/magazine/105703/the-naked-and-the-ted-khanna#
.

381  “It's crap”: Unnamed neuroscientist, Swiss Academy of Sciences meeting, Bern, January 20, 2012,
www.nature.com/news/computer-modelling-brain-in-a-box-1.10066
.

381  “We are all agreed”: Niels Bohr to Wolfgang Pauli, Columbia University, 1958, cited in
Economist,
August 24, 2013, p. 71.

381  “We are opening a window”: Jack Gallant, professor of neuroscience at the University of California, Berkeley, September 2011, quoted at
www.sciencedaily.com.releases/2011/09/110922121407.htm
.

381  “There's a long way to go”: Jan Schnupp, professor of neuroscience at Oxford University, February 1, 2012, quoted at
www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2095214/As-scientists-discover-translate-brainwaves-words-Could-machine-read-innermost-thoughts.html
.

382  “a bunch of hot air”: Miguel Nicolelis, professor of neuroscience at Duke University, February 18, 2013, quoted at
www.technologyreview.com/view/511421/the-brain-is-not-computable/
.

382  “when a scientist says”: Richard Smalley, October 2000, quoted in
washingtonmonthly.com/features/2000/0010.thompson.html
.

383  “Once upon a time”: Livy,
History of Rome
2.32 (translation mine).

385  “Everything in war is very simple”: Clausewitz,
On War,
bk. 1, chap. 7, trans. in Howard and Paret 1976, p. 119.

385  “the last best hope of earth”: President Abraham Lincoln, second annual message to Congress, December 1, 1862,
www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29503
.

385  “lean forward”: Brooks et al. 2013, p. 142.

385  “pull back”: Posen 2013, pp. 117–18.

385  “a grand strategy”: Brooks et al. 2013, p. 42.

385  “it is time to abandon”: Posen 2013, pp. 117–18.

386  Pax Technologica: Khanna and Khanna 2012.

387  “the rich are different from you and me”: F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway (possibly 1936), as discussed at
www.nytimes.com/1988/11/13/books/l-the-rich-are-different-907188.html
.

387  “transhuman”: Naam 2013a, p. 23.

388  “deadly Western armies”: V. D. Hanson 2001, p. 24.

392  two-thirds of Americans are telling pollsters:
www.cnn.com/2013/09/09/politics/syria=poll=main/index.html
.

392  “Speak softly and carry a big stick”: Theodore Roosevelt (then governor of New York) to Henry L. Sprague, January 26, 1900,
www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/images/at0052as.jpg
.

393  
Si vis pacem:
Unattributed Roman proverb. The closest version preserved in Roman literature is “Qui desiderat pacem, praeparet bellum,” in Vegetius,
On Military Matters
(ca.
A.D.
400).

FURTHER READING

There are more books and essays on the history of war than anyone could read in a dozen lifetimes, and so in this section I simply list the works that have had the most influence on my own thinking. One of the joys of being an academic is that I get paid to read books about things I am interested in, and so even though I have pruned the list several times, it still runs to hundreds of titles.

Within this mass of scholarship, though, I want to single out just a dozen works without which I probably never would have written this book: Azar Gat's
War in Human Civilization
(2006), the unchallenged starting point for all serious studies of the long-term history of war; Jared Diamond's
Guns, Germs, and Steel
(1997) and Robert Wright's
Nonzero
(2000), wonderful examples of how to combine evolution and history; Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's
Demonic Males
(1996), still the best book on primate and human violence; Lawrence Keeley's
War Before Civilization
(1996), which opened a new chapter in the study of prehistoric war; Steven Pinker's
Better Angels of Our Nature
(2011), a magnificent account of modern violence; Edward Luttwak's
Strategy
(2001) and Rupert Smith's
Utility of Force
(2005), which bring Clausewitz's theorizing together with the modern history of war; Kenneth Chase's
Firearms
(2003), a neglected classic of comparative military history; Paul Kennedy's
Rise and Fall of the Great Powers
(1987) and Niall Ferguson's
Empire
(2003), which offer grand visions of war in the last few hundred years; and, last but certainly not least, John Keegan's
Face of Battle
(1976), to my mind the finest history of the battlefield experience yet written.

Because the literature is so large, almost every topic I touch on is controversial, making it virtually impossible to say anything of substance without going against the judgment of at least some specialists. Where debates are particularly contentious, or where I go against the majority opinion among experts, I indicate this, but sadly space does not allow for exhaustive bibliographies on every point.

My list combines studies aimed at general readers, academic overviews, and pieces of detailed research on specific points. Whenever possible I cite recent works in English that provide large bibliographies of their own. Except when referring to short essays in
newspapers, I cite works by the author's last name and date of publications; full details can be found in the bibliography that follows.

All URLs were checked on September 22, 2013.

INTRODUCTION

Events of September 26, 1983: I draw on the account in D. Hoffman 2009, pp. 6–11. We still do not know exactly where Soviet missiles were pointed in 1983, in part because many Russian missiles are still pointing at the same targets. I would like to thank David Holloway for discussing this episode with me.

Likely casualties from nuclear war in the 1980s: Daugherty et al. 1986; B. Levi et al. 1987/88. U.S. war game: Bracken 2012, pp. 82–88.

Thompson and Smith 1980 convey the mood of Europe's antinuclear movements, and Sabin 1986 is excellent on the British context that I experienced as a student. Nuclear stockpiles in 1986: Norris and Kristensen 2006, p. 66.

Lesser-evil arguments: Pinker 2011, pp. 507–8, 557.

Civilizing Process:
Elias 1982 (1939). Homicide statistics: Eisner 2003, elaborated in Spierenburg 2008. Roth 2009 extends the analysis to the United States.

War Before Civilization:
Keeley 1996, developed further in LeBlanc and Register 2003 and Gat 2006, pp. 3–145. Brian Ferguson 2013 challenges these estimates of prehistoric mortality.

Statistics of Deadly Quarrels:
Richardson 1960. Several scholars have offered complicated (but not, to my mind, very convincing) refutations of Richardson's conclusion that humans have become less warlike since 1820; Wilkinson 1980 discusses their arguments.

Databases of death: Since there are now so many (and there are doubtless more out there that I am unaware of), I divide these into four broad categories: war, genocide, terrorism, and homicide. This is somewhat arbitrary, though, because the categories merge into each other and different researchers define them differently (Rudy Rummel, for instance, classifies Nazi massacres of civilians in eastern Europe as genocide, while most databases treat them as war deaths). Because of definitional differences and the inherent ambiguities and gaps in the evidence, no two databases come up with exactly the same numbers.

Deaths from war: Brecke 1999, 2002; Cederman 2003; Clodfelter 1993; Eck and Hultman 2007; Eckhardt 1992; Ganzel and Schwinghammer 2000; Gleditsch et al. 2002; Hewitt et al. 2008; Human Security Centre 2005, 2006; Human Security Report Project 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011,
www.hsrgroup.org/
; Lacina 2009; Lacina et al. 2006; Levy 1983; Peace Research Institute of Oslo,
www.prio.no/CSCW/Datasets/Armed-Conflict/Battle-Deaths
; Sarkees 2000; Singer and Small 1972; Sorokin 1957; Steckel and Wallis 2009; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2012; Uppsala Conflict Data Project,
www.prio.no/CSCW/Datasets/Armed-Conflict/UCDP-PRIO
, with discussion in Themner and Wallensteen 2012; M. White 2011,
http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/
; Q. Wright 1942.

Deaths from genocide: Harff 2003, 2005; One-Sided Violence Dataset,
www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/datasets/
; Rummel 1994, 1997, 2002, 2004.

Deaths from terrorism: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism,
www.start.umd.edu/gtd/
.

Deaths from homicide: Eisner 2003; Krug et al. 2002; Spierenburg 2008; Roth 2009.

Overall levels of violence: Global Peace Index,
www.visionofhumanity.org/
. Extreme cases: Gerlach 2010.

Analyses of databases and categories of analysis: Chirot and McCauley 2006; Dulic 2004;
Lacina and Gleditsch 2005; Levy and Thompson 2011; Long and Brecke 2003; Obermeyer et al. 2008; Adam Roberts 2010; Roberts and Turcotte 1998; Spagat et al. 2009.

Disagreements over death toll in Afghanistan since 2001:
http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/21/calculating-the-human-cost-of-the-war-in-afghanistan/
.

War in Human Civilization:
Gat 2006.
Sex at Dawn:
Ryan and Jethá 2010 (to be read with the equally impassioned response
Sex at Dusk
[Saxon 2012]).
The End of War:
Horgan 2012.
War, Peace, and Human Nature:
Fry 2013.
Winning the War on War:
Goldstein 2011.
Better Angels:
Pinker 2011.
World Until Yesterday:
Diamond 2012.

Leviathan
and its critics: Parkin 2007. French alternatives: David Bell 2007, pp. 52–83.

War and the state: Tilly 1975, 1985.

Fifty thousand books on the American Civil War: Keeley 1996, p. 4.

Hitler and the Nazi Leviathan: Evans 2005; Mazower 2008.

Menu of types of imperialism: N. Ferguson 2004, pp. 7–13.

1.
THE WASTELAND?

Battle at the Graupian Mountain: This calls for a long note. To begin with, we do not know for sure where the battle at the Graupian Mountain was fought. Like most historians since St. Joseph (1978), though, I suspect it was on the slopes of Bennachie in Aberdeenshire.

Nor can we be certain exactly what happened in it. Each detail in my account is based on real events and passages in ancient texts, but we do not know whether all, some, or none of them actually happened on that day—or, for that matter, on any day (Lendon 1999 discusses the rhetorical complexities of Roman battle accounts). Overall I rely on the one major source for the battle, Tacitus's
Agricola
29–38 (published around
A.D.
98), and augment it with details of Caledonian tactics and weapons from other Roman sources (particularly Tacitus,
Agricola
11 and
Germania
4; Strabo,
Geography
4.5.2, 7.1.2; Diodorus of Sicily 5.30.5; and Julius Caesar,
The Gallic War
5.14). I also draw on the enormous modern literature on Roman tactics (Goldsworthy 1996, 2003, and 2006 are excellent accounts), modern models of how ancient battles could plausibly have worked (Sabin 2000, 2007), and the battle analyses by W. S. Hanson 1987, pp. 129–39, and Campbell 2010.

Since few modern authors have been in a cavalry charge, and ancient accounts are very generic, I draw on Winston Churchill's (1930, chap. 15) eyewitness description of the last major cavalry charge by a British regiment, at Omdurman in 1898, in my description of the auxiliaries' attack.

I have Calgacus slip on a mail shirt before joining battle because, while Roman writers repeatedly say that Britons fought unarmored, chain mail has been found in several pre-Roman graves (Mattingly 2006, p. 48). By
A.D.
83, Caledonian chiefs would probably have worn mail to fight.

Tacitus's attitude toward Roman imperialism was, to put it mildly, complicated (Sailor 2011, Woolf 2011). He married Agricola's daughter, consistently praised Agricola for spreading Roman civilization, and criticized the emperor Domitian for abandoning Agricola's conquests in Britain; at the same time he used the idealized simplicity of the peoples outside the empire to highlight Rome's decadence, described the incorporation of the Britons into the empire as slavery, and wrote a stirring speech for Calgacus.

On the Roman Empire generally, volumes 8–11 of the second edition of the
Cambridge Ancient History
(published 1989–2000) provide enormous detail, while Woolf 2012 gives a fine overview. Gat 2006, pp. 3–322, is excellent on the evolution of ancient war and government.

Tel Aviv skulls: Cohen et al. 2012. Peruvian skeletons: Arkush and Tung 2013.
The Routledge
Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict
(Knüsel and Smith 2013) appeared while this book was in production but has some excellent essays.

Everyday barbarian violence: Caesar,
Gallic Wars
6.16–24; Tacitus,
Germania
13–15; Strabo,
Geography
4.4. Shields and spears for Germans like togas for Romans: Tacitus,
Germania
13. Wicker cages: Caesar,
Gallic Wars
6.16.

Mattingly 2006 and 2011 argue that Roman writers misrepresented the people they conquered, and Hingley 2000 and 2005 discuss how Victorian attitudes toward empire colored Roman archaeology.

Rome, violence, and the eastern Mediterranean: Chaniotis 2005; Eckstein 2006, pp. 79–117. Bandits: Shaw 1984. Pirates: de Souza 1999.

Western societies before the Roman conquest: Wells 1999. The Bog Man (a.k.a. Pete Marsh): Brothwell 1986. Human sacrifice, heads, and so on: K. Sanders 2009. Alken Enge:
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120814100302.htm
.

Danebury: Cunliffe 1983. Fin Cop:
www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1378190/Iron-Age-mass-grave-reveals-slaughter-women-children.html
.

Death, enslavement, and Rome's wars: Harris 1979 remains the classic account. Epirus, 167
B.C.
: Livy 45.33–34. Sack of cities: Polybius 10.15 (describing events in 209
B.C.
). Caesar in Gaul: Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 184–356. Deaths in the Gallic War: Plutarch,
Life of Julius Caesar
15; Pliny the Elder,
Natural History
7.92. Casualties in the Jewish War of
A.D.
66–73: Josephus,
Jewish War
6.420. Casualties in the revolt of
A.D.
132–135 (also known as the Bar Kochba Revolt): Cassius Dio 69.14. Few ancient statistics are reliable, and casualty totals could be wildly inflated. However, they were certainly high enough to make Calgacus's point.

Violence in first-century-
B.C.
Rome has been analyzed in detail: See Lintott 1968; Nippel 1995; Riggsby 1999; and Harries 2007.

Elias on the Roman Empire: Elias 1992, pp. 222–29.

Roman aristocrats remaking themselves: Gleason 1995; Harris 2004. Pax Romana: Woolf 1993. Parchami 2009 compares the Paces Romana, Britannica, and Americana, as I do in later chapters of this book, but concentrates more on theories of empire than on their consequences. Decline in piracy: Braund 1993.

Verres: Cicero,
Against Verres
(published 70
B.C.
).

Roman economic growth: Bowman and Wilson 2009; Scheidel and Friesen 2009; Scheidel 2010, 2012. On maritime trade, Harris and Iara 2011. I would like to thank Richard Saller, Walter Scheidel, Rob Stephan, John Sutherland, and Peter Temin for discussions on this topic. I discuss the different kinds of evidence and elsin I. Morris 2013, pp. 66–80.

What Roman emperors actually did: Millar 1977. Suetonius,
The Twelve Caesars
(published ca.
A.D.
120), has graphic descriptions of the sins of Caligula, Nero, Tiberius, and Domitian.

Roving and stationary bandits: McGuire and Olson 1996; Olson 2000. Differences between gangsters and government: Tilly 1985. Diamond 2012, pp. 79–118, has a fine account of how governments change law and suppress violence.

Uru'inimgina's laws: J. Cooper 1986, pp. 70–78.

Rodney King:
Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department
(1991),
www.parc.info/client_files/Special%20Reports/1%20-%20Chistopher%20Commision.pdf
. Beating videotape:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=0w-SP7iuM6k&feature=related
.

Pompey: Seager 2002.

Casualties in Iraq, 2006–9: The precise numbers are debated, but most sources agree on the pattern. I use data from the Iraq Coalition Casualty Count (
http://icasualties.org/
)
and Iraq Body Count (
www.iraqbodycount.org/database/
). Petraeus and counterinsur-gency: F. Kaplan 2013.

Hard, soft, and smart power: Nye 2011.

Decline of violence in Greek cities: van Wees 1998. Hitting slaves: Old Oligarch 1.10. Athens and fifth-century cities: I. Morris 2009.
Koina:
Mackil 2013 is the best account, although her analysis differs from mine. Ptolemy VIII and Attalus III: I follow the accounts in Gruen 1984, pp. 592–608 and 692–709. The most important texts are translated in Austin 1981, nos. 214 and 230.