Voices of Islam (50 page)

The Ismailis who remained in Iran had to protect their identity to escape persecution. Given the esoteric nature of their tradition, Sufi orders often provided hospitality to the Ismailis. Though the Sufi orders then prevalent in the Iranian lands were predominantly Sunni, all of them held ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib in high esteem. During this diffi lt phase, the institution of the Ismaili Imamate retained its resilience. In the fourteenth century, under the infl ce of the Nizari Imams, new centers of Nizari activity were established in the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, the mountainous regions of Hindukush, Central Asia, and parts of China. In South Asia, the Nizari Ismailis became known as
Khojas,
and they developed a distinctive devotional literature known as the
Ginan
s.

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Developments in the Modern Period

The modern Nizari Ismaili community has a global presence. Histori- cally, the community refl a wide geographical and ethnographic diversity based on the various cultural regions of the world where its members originated and lived. Today, the Ismaili heritage includes the cultures of Central Asia, Persia, the Arab Middle East, and South Asia. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many Ismailis from South Asia migrated to Africa and settled there. In more recent times, there has been migration from all parts of the Ismaili world to North America and Europe. The shared values that unite Ismailis are centered on their allegiance to a living Imam. At present, this is the 49th hereditary Imam and descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, Prince Karim Aga Khan. The authority and guidance of the Imam provides the enabling framework for the development of the Ismaili community and for the continuity of its Muslim heritage.

The modern phase of Nizari Ismaili history, as with other Muslims, can be dated to the nineteenth century and to the significant historical changes aris- ing from the growth and enlargement of European presence and power in the Muslim world. Following a period of change and turmoil in Iran during the 1840s, the 46th Imam, Hasan ‘Ali Shah, went to India. He was the first Nizari Imam to bear the title of Aga Khan, which was granted to him by the Persian monarch Fath ‘Ali Shah Qajar. His leadership enabled the com- munity in India to lay the foundations for institutional and social develop- ments and also fostered more regular contacts with Ismaili communities in other parts of the world. After his death in 1881 he was succeeded by his son ‘Ali Shah, Aga Khan II, who continued to build on the institutions cre- ated by his father, with a particular emphasis on providing modern education for the community. He also played an important role representing Muslims in the emerging political institutions under British rule in India. Following his early death in 1885, Aga Khan II was succeeded by his eight-year-old son, Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III. Aga Khan III was Imam for 72 years, the longest in Ismaili history, and his life spanned dramatic political, social, and economic transformations. His long-term involvement in international affairs, his advocacy of Muslim interests in troubled times, and his commitment to the advancement of education, particularly for Muslim women, reflect his significant and generous contributions. It was his leader- ship as Imam, however, that transformed the modern history of the Nizari Ismailis, enabling them to adapt successfully to the challenges of the twenti- eth century.

In South Asia and Africa, the Nizari Ismailis established administrative structures, educational institutions, and health services and built on eco- nomic opportunities in trade and industry. In 1905, the Nizari Ismaili com- munity in East Africa adopted a constitution, which laid the basis for an

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organized framework of institutions and governance at local, regional, and national levels. Similar constitutions were created for other Ismaili commun- ities and were revised periodically, providing guidance for the conduct of per- sonal law and its place within the context of the laws of each country in which the Ismailis resided. In 1986, the present Imam, Prince Karim Aga Khan, extended this practice to the worldwide Nizari Ismaili community. The revised Ismaili constitution, which serves the social governance needs of all Nizari Ismailis, facilitates a unifi approach to internal organization and external relations, while taking account of regional diversity and local differ- ences. As in the past, Ismailis follow a strong tradition of voluntary service, contributions, and donations of time, expertise, and personal resources to the Imam and communal institutions.

The present Nizari Imam assumed his post in 1957, at a time when much of the developing world, including the Muslim world, was going through an important period of transition, often marked by political change and upheaval. These continued throughout the twentieth century, making it par- ticularly vital that the Ismailis were guided appropriately through periods of crises and tumultuous changes, as in East Africa and the subcontinent, and later in Tajikistan, Iran, Syria, and Afghanistan. Social and political disloca- tion often meant that humanitarian concerns for the rehabilitation and reset- tlement of refugees took priority, and a signifi ant number of Ismailis emigrated to Britain, other European countries, Canada, and the United States.

While the internal institutional organizations of the Nizari Ismaili commu- nity continued to be strengthened and reorganized to respond to changing conditions, the Imam also created new institutions to better serve the com- plex development needs of the community and the societies in which his fol- lowers lived. This gave rise to the establishment of the AKDN (Aga Khan Development Network), with the goal of creating strategies for sustainable human development conducive to the fulfilment of the cultural, economic, social, and spiritual aspirations of individuals and communities. A number of institutions within the AKDN pursue a variety of programs in economic development, education, social development, culture, and the environment across the world, in both rural and urban settings, with a particular emphasis on disadvantaged populations.

Doctrines and Practices

The essence of Shi‘ism lies in the search for the true meaning of revelation in order to understand the purpose of life and human destiny. By virtue of the authority (
walaya
) invested in Imam ‘Ali by the Prophet, each Imam of the time is the inheritor of the Prophet’s authority, the trustee of his legacy, and the guardian of the Qur’an. The role of the Imam in guiding the path

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to spiritual self-realization conveys the essence of the relationship between the Imam and his follower (
murid
), symbolized in the traditional pledge of allegiance (
bay‘a
) that each
murid
makes to the Imam of the time. The replacement of the line of prophecy with that of Imamate, therefore, ensures the balance between the
Shari‘a,
the exoteric aspect of the faith, and the
Haqiqa,
its esoteric, spiritual essence. Neither the exoteric (
zahir
) nor the esoteric (
batin
) aspect of the religion obliterates the other. The Imam is the path to the believer’s inward, spiritual elevation and is the religious authority that makes the
Shari‘a
relevant according to the needs of the time. This emphasis on an inner, spiritual life in harmony with the exoteric performance of the
Shari‘a
is an aspect of the faith that finds acceptance among many com- munities in both branches of Islam, whether Shiite or Sunni.

The Imamate thus enables believers to go beyond the apparent or outward form of the revelation in their search for its inner spirituality and meaning. Under the guidance of each Nizari Imam, the meaning of the Qur’an unfolds afresh in each age. The ultimate Shiite expectation is not a new revelation but the complete understanding of the spiritual meaning of the fi revelation granted to the Prophet Muhammad. This constitutes the Shiite notion of Islam’s spiritual dynamism through the line of Imams, whose main role is to foster continuing submission to the Divine Command. This principle ensures the ever-continuing vitality of the
Shari‘a,
the normative law, and the practices derived from it. These practices are the foundation of Ja‘fari– Imami Shiite jurisprudence, as elaborated by Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq, who is accepted by both Imami and Ismaili Shiite Muslims as their Imam. Both communities, accordingly, subscribe to the fundamentals of Islam and its core practices. They accept the Holy Qur’an, correctly interpreted, as the source of guidance for all time. They respect the
Sunna
of the Prophet Muhammad as reported via the ‘Alid Imams, in addition to the norms speci- fied by the Imams themselves. They reserve the right of interpretation of the Qur’an to the Imams from the progeny of the Prophet. As a religious princi- ple, they place obedience to the Imams immediately after obedience to God and the Prophet. This belief is derived from the command in the Qur’an that Muslims obey God and the Prophet and refer their disputes to those vested with authority. When in doubt about the correct course to follow, they are to submit to the Imam’s judgment. The Imams are the People of Remem- brance (
Ahl al-Dhikr
), endowed with the competent knowledge of the revealed message.

Shiites perform their congregational prayers in mosques, to which all Mus- lims go. In addition to the practices prescribed by the
Shari‘a,
the Nizari Ismailis observe their own distinctive practices such as supplicatory and inter- cessionary prayers (
du‘a
), meditative sessions of remembrance (
dhikr
), and the recitation of devotional poetry. Such practices usually take place in Ismaili
Jamatkhanas
(literally, ‘‘assembly-houses’’). Ismaili assembly-houses are des- ignated by the Imam of the time for the use of
murids
who have given the

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bay‘a,
the oath of allegiance, and whose
bay‘a
the Imam has accepted. As an integral part of the religious landscape of the Muslim world,
Jamatkhanas
are part of an institutional category that serves a number of Shiite and Sunni communities in their respective contexts. For many centuries, a prominent feature of the religious landscape of Islam has been gathering spaces that coexist in harmony with the mosque. Historically serving communities of dif- ferent interpretations and spiritual affi s, these spaces range from the
ribat, tekke,
and
zawiya
of the Sufis to the
Husayniyya
and
Jamatkhana
of the Shi‘a.

The practices of the Nizari Ismailis have evolved over many centuries in a multiplicity of cultural milieus, stretching from North Africa and the Middle East, through Iran, Central Asia, Afghanistan, and China, to South Asia. The resulting diversity of these practices corresponds to the multiple cultural, lin- guistic, and literary traditions of the Nizari Ismailis, which reflects the plural- ism of the Muslim
Umma
within the fundamental unity of Islam. This unity among Muslims is evident, for example, in their common practices derived from the
Shari‘a
and common festivals, such as
‘Id al-Fitr
(the feast of fast- breaking at the end of Ramadan) and
Milad al-Nabi
(the celebration of the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday), which are celebrated by Muslims of all per- suasions. In addition, Shiite Muslims gather specifi lly for Shiite festivals such as
‘Id al-Ghadir,
the commemoration of Ghadir al-Khumm, where the Prophet designated ‘Ali as his successor. This unity among Muslims has his- torically coexisted with the right of each school of Islamic thought to practice its particular interpretation of the central tenets of Islam.

The Musta‘li Ismailis

The Musta‘li Ismailis share with the Nizari Ismailis a common Fatimid her- itage, although they no longer have an Imam who is present in their commu- nity. Instead, they take guidance from the leadership of the
Da‘i Mutlaq
(Supreme Authority), the representative of the concealed Imam, to maintain the intellectual and legal traditions of their daily life. The Musta‘li Imams themselves have remained in concealment since 1130
CE
. In their absence, supreme authorities known as Da‘i Mutlaq have led their community. For all practical purposes, the
Da‘i
is a substitute for the hidden Musta‘li Imam. As in the case of Imams, the Musta‘li
Da‘is
appoint their successors. From the twelfth century onwards, the Musta‘li Ismailis were based primarily in Yemen and later to an increasing extent in India, where they became known as Bohras. After 1589
CE
, the community became divided into Daudi and Sulaymani branches over allegiance to different individuals as
Da‘i Mutlaq.
There are no signifi ant differences between the doctrines of the two branches of Musta‘li Ismailism. The present
Da‘i
of the majoritarian group, the Tayyibi Daudis, is Sayyidna Muhammad Burhan al-Din, the 52nd in the

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series. He lives in Mumbai (Bombay), where the leadership has moved from its earlier headquarters in Gujarat. The Daudis are found mostly in South Asia, to a lesser extend in Yemen, and in small immigrant communities in Britain, North America, and Sri Lanka. The other Musta‘li group, the Sulay- manis, recognize ‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Makrami as the 51st
Da‘i,
with his headquarters in Yemen. Following the annexation of the province of Najran from the Yemen to Saudi Arabia in 1934, a smaller community of Sulaymanis is also to be found there with a much smaller number in India.

Since 1817, the offi of
Da‘i Mutlaq
of the Daudis has remained in the progeny of Shaykh Jiwanji Awrangabadi. Two recent
Da‘is
have played important roles in the modern Tayyibi Daudi community. Sayyidna Tahir Sayf al-Din became leader in 1915 and was succeeded in 1965 by his son, the present
Da‘i
Sayyidna Muhammad Burhan al-Din (b. 1915). Sayyidna Muhammad has continued to emphasize the strong tradition of learning in the Daudi community. This is reflected in the development of two major libraries in the Indian cities Mumbai and Surat and the enlargement of their main seminary, Jami‘a Sayfiyya, in Surat, an academy of learning and training for religious scholars and functionaries of the community. There are well- established
madrasas
for the religious education of all Daudi Bohras as well as schools for secular education. The tradition of retaining the heritage of learning through manuscript study has been well preserved, and scholarly and literary works, primarily in Arabic, continue to be developed within the community. The Musta‘li Ismailis, both Daudi and Sulaymani, have pre- served a signifi nt portion of the Arabic literature of the Ismailis of earlier times.