The Truth Machine (38 page)

136
. Lombroso (1876) quoted in Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, Criminal Man
by Cesare Lombroso
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 24.

137
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
17.

138
. Although all ended up as ingredients in the modern criminological mixture, at the time “they were discrete forms of knowledge, undertaken for a variety of different purposes, and forming elements within a variety of different discourses, none of which corresponded exactly with the criminological project that was subsequently formed.” Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 28.

139
. Ibid.

140
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
15.

Epigraph.
Jarkko Jalava, “The Modern Degenerate: Nineteenth-century Degeneration Theory and Psychopathy Research,”
Theory and Psychology
16 (2006): 419.

1
. Marie-Christine Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal: The Production of Deviance in Nineteenth-Century Discourse
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), 67.

2
. Daniel Pick,
Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–1918
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 7; Mary Gibson,
Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 7.

3
. Robert Nye, “Heredity or Milieu: The Foundations of European Criminological Theory,”
Isis
67 (1976): 336.

4
. Martin J. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830–1914
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 57; David Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals: The Development of Criminology in Britain,” in Mike Maguire, Rod Morgan, and Robert Reiner,
The Oxford Handbook of Criminology,
2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 32–33.

5
. Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal,
chap. 3.

6
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 33.

7
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
226.

8
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 12.

9
. Peter J. Hutchings,
The Criminal Spectre in Law, Literature and Aesthetics
(London: Routledge, 2001), 185.

10
. David G. Horn,
The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance
(London: Routledge, 2003), 29.

11
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
118.

12
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
111; Gibson,
Born to Crime,
2.

13
. Mary Gibson,
Born to Crime,
3.

14
. Lombroso (1871) quoted in Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
126.

15
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
128.

16
. Lombroso (1894) quoted in Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
119.

17
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
chap. 1.

18
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
113.

19
. Gibson,
Born to Crime.

20
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
136.

21
. Horn,
The Criminal Body,
chap. 6.

22
. Nye, “Heredity or Milieu,” 345.

23
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
6.

24
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
129.

25
. Neil Davie,
Tracing the Criminal: The Rise of Scientific Criminology in Britain, 18601918
(Oxford: Bardwell Press, 2006).

26
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
178.

27
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
16.

28
. Ibid., 216–17.

29
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
182.

30
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
224.

31
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
150.

32
. Tarde (1886) in Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal,
51.

33
. Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal,
chap. 3.

34
. T. S. Clouston, “The Developmental Aspects of Criminal Anthropology,”
The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
23 (1894): 221 (emphasis in original).

35
. Clouston (1906) quoted in Roger Smith, “‘Inhibition' and the Discourse of Order,”
Science in Context
5, no. 2 (1992): 237–63.

36
. Smith, “‘Inhibition' and the Discourse of Order,” 248.

37
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
11–12.

38
. Mayhew (1862) quoted in Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
24–25.

39
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
233.

40
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
234. For an excellent account of the troubled workings of a mid-Victorian local prison that examines prison discipline beyond the Benthamite vision, see Richard W. Ireland,
“A Want of Order and Good Discipline”: Rules, Discretion and the Victorian Prison
(Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2007).

41
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 36.

42
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 35.

43
. “The Romance of Crime, Criminal and Police,”
The Belfast News-Letter
(Belfast), Issue 26020, Tuesday, December 27, 1898, 5.

44
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
217.

45
. Lombroso clearly was a household name in Britain, contrary to what Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
180, claims. His ideas were regularly discussed—often skeptically—in metropolitan and provincial papers such as
The Pall Mall Gazette,
The London
Graphic, The Glasgow Herald,
the
Aberdeen Weekly Journal,
and the
Hampshire Telegraph and Sussex Chronicle.
See Helen Zimmern, “Professor Lombroso's New Theory of Political Crime,”
Blackwood's Magazine
49 (1891): 202–11; Isabel Foard, “The Criminal: Is He Produced by Environment or Atavism?”
Westminster Review
150 (1898): 90–103.

46
. Davie,
Tracing the Criminal,
chap. 5.

47
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
189–203.

48
. Ellis (1890) quoted in Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
178.

49
. Havelock Ellis, “Retrospect of Criminal Anthropology,”
Journal of Mental Science
37 (1891): 299–309, 458–64.

50
. “British Medical Congress,”
The Bristol Mercury and Daily Post
(Bristol), Issue 14425, Saturday, August 4, 1894, 5.

51
. Havelock Ellis, “Retrospect of Criminal Anthropology,” 459. An important figure in the dissemination of criminal anthropology in Britain, Morrison wrote the introduction to the English translation of Cesare Lombroso and Guglielmo Ferrero,
The Female Offender
(New York: D. Appleton, 1895). See also L. Gordon Rylands,
Crime: Its Causes and Remedy
(London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1889).

52
. Quoted in Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
183.

53
. Major Arthur Griffiths,
Mysteries of Crime and Police,
2 vols. (London: Cassell, 1899); Griffiths,
Fifty Years of Public Service
(London: Cassell, 1904).

54
. Quoted in Davie,
Tracing the Criminal,
234.

55
. Ibid., 235.

56
. Darwin (1914–15) quoted in Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
358.

57
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 41.

58
. Nicole Hahn Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals
(Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 6.

59
. Lombroso-Ferrero, xxix, in Nicole Hahn Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology: Its Reception in the United States and the Nature of Its Appeal,” in Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell,
Criminals and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 180–81.

60
. Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
125.

61
. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology.”

62
. Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
115.

63
. Joseph Jastrow, “A Theory of Criminality,”
Science
8, no. 178 (July 2, 1886): 20–22.

64
. Ibid., 22.

65
. Robert Fletcher, “The New School of Criminal Anthropology,”
American Anthropologist
4, no. 3 (1891): 201–36.

66
. Ibid., 206.

67
. See Havelock Ellis and Alexander Winter,
The New York State Reformatory in Elmira
(London: S. Sonnenschein, 1891); Francis J. Lane,
Twelve Years in a Reformatory: A Report of the Activities and Experiences of a Catholic Chaplain During Twelve Years' Service in the Elmira
Reformatory
(New York: The Elmira Reformatory, 1934). See also H. S. Williams, “Can the Criminal Be Reclaimed?”
North American Review
163, no. 2 (1896): 207–18, who cites the reforms of Elmira as evidence that challenges criminal anthropology.

68
. Fletcher, “The New School of Criminal Anthropology,” 232.

69
. D. G. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—V: Criminal Anthropology,”
Science
19, no. 483 (May 6, 1892): 255.

70
. D. G. Brinton. “Current Notes on Anthropology.—XLI: The So-called ‘Criminal Type'”
Science
23, no. 579 (March 9, 1894): 127.

71
. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—XLI,” 127.

72
. Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
117–18. In all, Rafter has identified nine authors— three social welfare workers, three educators, and three ministers—whom she considers to be the main protagonists of “the concept of the criminal as a physically distinct, atavistic human being.”

73
. Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
120.

74
. Lydston (1904) quoted in Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
124.

75
. McKim (1900) quoted in Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
124 (emphases in original).

76
. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology,” 166.

77
. Horn,
The Criminal Body,
133–34.

78
. Mary Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology, 1880–1920,” in
Crime and Culture: An Historical Perspective,
ed. Amy Gilman Srebnick and René Lévy (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 37–47. Quote on 39.

79
. Jarkko Jalava, “The Modern Degenerate: Nineteenth-century Degeneration Theory and Psychopathy Research,”
Theory and Psychology
16 (2006): 419.

80
. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology,” 38.

81
. Ibid., 40.

82
. Quoted in Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
112.

83
. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology,” 42.

84
. Lombroso and Ferrero,
The Female Offender,
109–10.

85
. Kelly Hurley,
The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the
Fin-de-Siècle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 95.

86
. Lombroso and Ferrero,
The Female Offender,
72–73.

87
. Ibid., 129.

88
. Ibid., 148–58.

89
. Ibid., 131–32.

90
. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology.”

91
. Ibid., 40–47.

92
. Ibid., 47.

93
. Bela Földes, “The Criminal,”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
69, no. 3 (September 1906): 567.

94
. “An Epidemic of Kissing in America: A Novel Subject Treated from an Entirely New Point of View by Professor Lombroso, the Famous Italian Psychologist,”
The Pall Mall Gazette
10707, July 21, 1899, 10.

95
. D. G. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—VII: The Criminal Anthropology of Woman,”
Science
19, no. 487 (June 3, 1892): 316.

96
. Adalbert Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso: A Glance at His Life Work,”
Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology
1, no. 2 (July 1910): 73.

97
. Havelock Ellis,
The Criminal,
5th ed. (London: Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1914), 250.

98
. Hurley,
The Gothic Body,
93.

99
. Marvin E. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” in
Pioneers in Criminology,
ed. Hermann Mannheim, 2nd ed. (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith Publishing, 1972), 262.

100
. Quoted in Jalava, “The Modern Degenerate,” 418.

101
. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology.”

102
. Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal,
44.

103
. Ibid., 48.

104
. Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
113.

105
. Quoted in Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” 261.

106
. Gustave Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?”
Charities Review
6, no. 2 (April 1897): 112. Gustave Tarde was at the Bureau of Statistics at the Ministry of Justice in Paris.