The Transformation of the World (211 page)

  24
. Yapp,
Strategies
, pp. 419–60; M. C. Meyer and Sherman,
Mexican History
, pp. 385–401. On colonial wars, see
chapter 9
, below.

  25
. Labanca,
Oltremare
, pp. 108–22.

  26
. Wesseling,
Divide and Rule
is the standard narrative account. For more recent approaches, see Pétré–Grenouilleau,
From Slave Trade to Empire
.

  27
. Even the best of them all: Gildea,
Barricades
, pp. 326ff., and Sperber,
Europe 1850-1914
.

  28
. This is especially marked in J.-C. Caron and Vernus,
L'Europe au XIX
^e
siècle
.

  29
. Koebner and Schmidt,
Imperialism
, p. 50.

  30
. An important theme in Winkler,
Long Road West
, broached already in vol. 1, p. 5.

  31
. Otto Dann,
Zur Theorie
, p. 69. Such a definition was still lacking from the “basic concepts” in Dann,
Nation
, pp. 11–21.

  32
. Voigt,
Geschichte Australiens
, p. 114; M. King,
Penguin History of New Zealand
, pp. 266f.

  33
. The literature on nationalism is no longer manageable. For Europe, the main focus of research, recent works include: v. Hirschhausen and Leonhard,
Nationalismen
, esp. the editors' introduction (pp. 11–45); Leerssen,
National Thought
; Baycroft and Hewitson,
What is a Nation?
.

  34
. H. Schulze,
States, Nations, and Nationalism
.

  35
. W. Reinhard,
Staatsgewalt
, p. 443.

  36
. On the “modernity” of nation building and the epochal change around 1800, see the argument summarizing the discontinuity thesis in Langewiesche,
Nation
, pp. 14–34.

  37
. For an attempt to grasp this ideal-typically as an opposition between perennialism (the Romantic idea of the nation as a primal entity) and modernism (the nation as a construct), see Smith,
Nationalism and Modernism
, pp. 22f.

  38
. See Guibernau,
Nationalisms
, p. 48. Although I have many points in common with Connor (
Ethnonationalism
, 1994), I differ from him in this stress on internal “nation building” and, more generally, on objective, nonascriptive factors.

  39
. W. Reinhard,
Staatsgewalt
, p. 443.

  40
. See the original map in Buzan and Little,
International Systems
, p. 261.

  41
. Schölch,
Egypt for the Egyptians!
; J. R. Cole,
Colonialism
; Marr,
Vietnamese Anticolonialism
, pp. 166f.

  42
. E. Weber,
Peasants into Frenchmen
.

  43
. Schieder proposes a similar but slightly different typology in
Nationalism
, pp. 110f. These should not be confused with typologies of nation
building
: see Hroch,
Europa der Nationen
, pp. 41–45.

  44
. Breuilly,
Nationalism
, chs. 4–7.

  45
. The concept of the cycle of revolution was first introduced by the Leipzig historian Manfred Kossok. See
chapter 10
, below.

  46
. For an initial orientation, see Wood,
American Revolution
, pp. 17–30; Rodríguez,
Independence of Spanish America
, pp. 19–35; and, in a broader comparative framework, Elliott,
Empires
.

  47
. Dubois,
Avengers
. See also
chapter 10
, below.

  48
. The classic account is J. Lynch,
Spanish American Revolutions
, a masterpiece of narrative history.

  49
. Seton-Watson,
Nations and States
, p. 114.

  50
. Bitsch,
Histoire de la Belgique
, pp. 79–86; Rich,
Great Power Diplomacy
, pp. 59–61.

  51
. Jelavich,
Balkans
, vol. 1, pp. 196f.

  52
. Sundhaussen,
Geschichte Serbiens
, p. 130.

  53
. Jelavich and Jelavich,
Establishment
, p. 195.

  54
. Bernecker,
Geschichte Haitis
, p. 106.

  55
. Clogg,
Greece
, p. 73. See also
chapter 17
, below.

  56
. Bitsch,
Histoire de la Belgique
, pp. 119ff.

  57
. On the concept of the “polycephalic federation,” see Rokkan,
State Formation
, pp. 111, 220.

  58
. Blom and Lamberts,
Low Countries
, p. 404; J. Fisch,
Europa
, p. 171.

  59
. Another approach that does not use the concept of hegemony is Ronald Speirs and John Breuilly, “The Concept of National Unification,” in idem,
Germany's Two Unifications
, pp. 1–25.

  60
. On the two different styles of constitutional-authoritarian rule see Rusconi,
Cavour e Bismarck
, esp. 169ff.

  61
. Summary discussions for Italy: Beales and Biagini,
Risorgimento
; Banti,
Il Risorgimento italiano
; a synopsis of recent research is Banti and Ginsborg,
Il Risorgimento
. Of the numerous studies of Germany, a particularly good one is Lenger,
Industrielle Revolution
, pp. 315–81.

  62
. Lenger,
Industrielle Revolution
, p. 348.

  63
. Blackbourn,
History of Germany
,, p. 184.

  64
. Nipperdey,
Deutsche Geschichte 1866–1918
, vol. 2, p. 85.

  65
. Francesco Leoni, “Il brigantaccio postunitario,” in Viglione,
La Rivoluzione Italiana
, pp. 365–85.

  66
. N. G. Owen et al.,
Emergence
, p. 115.

  67
. Kirby,
Baltic World
, pp. 185–89.

  68
. Bumsted,
History
, pp. 132–42.

  69
. Extracts are published in Keith,
Selected Speeches
, vol. 1, pp. 113–72.

  70
. Mansergh,
Commonwealth Experience
, vol. 1, pp. 34–46.

  71
. See
chapters 7
and
17
.

  72
. See the exemplary analysis in Voigt,
Geschichte Australiens
, esp. pp. 170–84.

  73
. The dramatic story of the resistance is recounted in Ravina,
Last Samurai
, esp. chs. 5–6.

  74
. M. B. Jansen,
Modern Japan
, pp. 343–47.

  75
. I have found most convincing the analysis in Potter,
Impending Crisis
.

  76
. H. Jones,
Union in Peril
; cf. the speculations on the consequences a possible Confederate victory in R. W. Fogel,
Without Consent or Contract
, pp. 411–17.

  77
. See Dülffer et al.,
Vermiedene Kriege
, pp. 513–25.

  78
. Carr,
Spain
, pp. 347ff.; Balfour,
End of the Spanish Empire
, pp. 44–46; A. Roberts,
Salisbury
, p. 692.

  79
. Engerman and Neves,
Bricks
, p. 479.

  80
. Clarence-Smith,
Third Portuguese Empire
.

  81
. There are few general books covering the history of empires in the nineteenth century in their entirety. For overseas empires see Wesseling,
European Colonial Empires
; and for the later part of our period: Butlin,
Geographies of Empire
; also two excellent French textbooks: Surun,
Les sociétés coloniales
; Barjot and Frémeaux,
Les sociétés coloniales
. A pioneering attempt to consider continental and overseas empires within one framework is v. Hirschhausen and Leonhard,
Comparing Empires
.

  82
. R. Oliver and Atmore,
Africa since 1800
, p. 118.

  83
. C. Marx,
Geschichte Afrikas
, p. 70.

  84
. Ricklefs,
Modern Indonesia
, pp. 144–60.

  85
. C. J. Baker and Phongpaichit,
Thailand
, p. 105.

  86
. See the more detailed argument in Osterhammel,
Geschichtswissenschaft
, pp. 322–41.

  87
. The following draws on suggestions in classics of nationalism theory, such as the work of Benedict Anderson and Ernest Gellner, and Calhoun,
Nationalism
, pp. 4f. It also expands upon the argument in Osterhammel,
Expansion
.

  88
. On borders see Münkler,
Empires
, pp. 5ff.; also Osterhammel,
Geschichtswissenschaft
pp. 210–13, and
chapter 3
, above.

  89
. Charles Tilly, “How Empires End,” in Barkey and von Hagen,
After Empire
, p. 7.

  90
. M. W. Doyle,
Empires
, p. 36.

  91
. Langewiesche,
Nation
, p. 23.

  92
. Thom,
Republics
.

  93
. Langewiesche,
Nation
, p. 23.

  94
. Integration is an aspect not often discussed in the literature on empire. But see the empirically rich study Magee and Thompson:
Empire and Globalisation
.

  95
. Dunn,
Africa
, pp. 29, 33.

  96
. A new survey, which places great emphasis on the role of private firms, is Winseck and Pike,
Communication and Empire
.

  97
. This has often been noted before—most recently in Motyl,
Revolutions
, pp. 120–22. However, the same may be found in nation-states such as Spain and even France.

  98
. This structural definition builds on and modifies suggestions in Motyl,
Imperial Ends
, pp. 4, 15–27, and M. W. Doyle,
Empires
, pp. 19, 36, 45, 81. Cf. the excellent little book: S. Howe,
Empire
, esp. pp. 13–22.

  99
. In 1900 railroad mileage was of the same order of magnitude in these three countries. See Woodruff,
Impact of Western Man
, p. 253, Tab. VI/1.

100
. See Offer,
First World War
.

101
. See Osterhammel,
Colonialism
, pp. 10–18; cf. von Trotha,
Kolonialismus
.

102
. Kirby,
Baltic World
, pp. 52, 79f; Brower,
Turkestan
, pp. 26ff.

103
. See Cain,
Hobson
.

104
. Still invaluable is Mommsen,
Theories of Imperialism
. On the “classical” theories up to 1919, see Semmel,
Liberal Ideal
; and for a good survey of recent historical interpretations, Porter,
European Imperialism
, chs. 1–5.

105
. Schumpeter's classic essay on imperialisms (in the plural) is translated in his
Economics and Sociology
, pp. 141–219, esp. 190–213. The central concept here is “export monopolism.”

106
. See W. Reinhard,
Expansion
; idem,
Colonialism
; Adas,
Islamic and European Expansion
.

107
. Bayly,
First Age
. See also
chapter 2
, above.

108
. Wesseling,
Divide and Rule
, pp. 119ff.

109
. J. R.Ward,
Industrial Revolution
, p. 62.

110
. Many detailed examples are given in Brötel,
Frankreich im Fernen Osten
.

111
. Abernethy,
Global Dominance
, p. 101.

112
. J. Black,
War and the World
, p. 152.

113
. Headrick,
Tools
, pp. 20f., 43–54.

114
. Ibid., p. 117.

115
. On the following, a good synthesis is Okey,
Habsburg Monarchy
.

116
. For a brief sketch of the Habsburg position in Europe, see P. M. Kennedy,
Rise and Fall
, pp. 215–19.

117
. Bérenger,
History of the Habsburg Empire
, p. 134.

118
. On the disastrous sequel, see Bridge,
Habsburg Monarchy
, pp. 288ff.

119
. There is a tendency in the recent literature to distinguish between a pre-1867 “empire” and a looser post-1867 “monarchy.” See, e.g., Ingrao,
Habsburg Monarchy
; and Okey,
Habsburg Monarchy
.

120
. Cf. the evaluation in Hoensch,
Modern Hungary
, pp. 20ff.

121
. See the sophisticated discussion of nationalism in Okey,
Habsburg Monarchy
, pp. 283–309.

122
. Bérenger,
History of the Habsburg Empire
, p. 214.

123
. İnalcık and Quataert,
Ottoman Empire
, vol. 2, p. 782; Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, pp. 285f.

124
. Cf. D. Lieven,
Empire
, pp. 184f.

125
. Bawden,
Mongolia
, pp. 187ff.

126
. For a brief sketch of the Napoleonic Empire, see Boudon,
Histoire du consulat et de l'Empire
, pp. 283–303, see also Dwyer and Forrest,
Napoleon and His Empire
.

127
. There is a brilliant portrait of this new ruling class in Woloch,
Napoleon and His Collaborators
, esp. pp. 156f.

128
. Broers,
Europe
, esp. pp. 125–38, 202–30.

129
. See the map in ibid., p. 181.

130
. Quoted from Jourdan,
L'Empire de Napoléon
, p. 120.