The Teacher Wars (44 page)

1
“I should think any female”:
Alma Lutz,
Susan B. Anthony: Rebel, Crusader, Humanitarian
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1959), 11.

2
With her $110 annual salary:
I. H. Harper,
The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony: Including Public Addresses
, vol. 1 (Indianapolis: Bowen-Merrill Company, 1898), loc 1175.

3
“That salary business”:
The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony
, vol. 1,
In the School of Anti-Slavery, 1895–1906
, ed. Ann D. Gordon (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 57–58.

4
“penance … A weariness”:
Ibid., 66.

5
“I have only to say”:
Ibid., 71.

6
In 1850, four-fifths:
Ibid., 228.

7
Anthony could no longer sit silently:
Ibid., 226–29.

8
“Whatever the schoolmasters might think”:
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony and Matilda Joslyn Gage,
History of Woman Suffrage
, vol. 1, 1848–1861 (New York: Source Book Press, 1889), 514.

9
On the conference's last day:
Gordon, ed.,
In the School of Anti-Slavery
, 229.

10
Anthony wrote to Stanton:
Ibid., 319–20.

11
She had seen her father:
Lutz,
Susan B. Anthony
, 13.

12
“I am glad that you will represent us”:
Harper,
The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony
, vol. 1, loc 2754.

13
Ernestine Rose:
Carol Komerten,
The American Life of Ernestine L. Rose
(Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1999).

14
Robert Owen, the Scottish factory owner:
Francis J. O'Hagan, “Robert Owen and Education,” in
Robert Owen and His Legacy
, ed. Noel Thomson and Chris Williams (Cardiff, UK: University of Wales Press, 2011).

15
“I should like particular effort”:
Harper,
The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony
, vol. 1, loc 2694.

16
her disdain for “schoolmarms”:
Ibid., loc 2986.

17
1880 lecture “Our Girls”:
The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony
,
vol. 3, National Protection for National Citizens, 1873–1880
, ed. A. D. Gordon (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 500.

18
After a particularly tiring protest:
Harper,
The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony
, vol. 1, loc 3121.

19
The women's movement split into two hostile camps:
Ellen Carol DuBois, ed.,
The Elizabeth Cady Stanton—Susan B. Anthony Reader
(Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981), 89–93.

20
federal commissioner of education John Eaton:
John Eaton,
Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1873
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1874), 133–34.

21
“The two types of mind”:
Sugg,
Motherteacher: The Feminization of American Public Education
, 112.

22
cautiously addressed The Woman Question:
Charles William Eliot, “Inaugural Address of Charles W. Eliot as president of Harvard College,” October 19, 1869, 50.

23
“The average skill of the teachers in the public schools”:
Charles William Eliot,
Educational Reform
(New York: The Century Co., 1901), 162.

24
“It does not matter whether the trade”:
Charles W. Eliot, “Wise and Unwise Economy in Our Schools,”
The Atlantic Monthly
, June 1875.

25
“weaker than men”:
Ibid.

26
The wealthier and more developed:
William T. Harris,
Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1892–1893
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1895), 545.

27
Across New England, only 10 percent:
Sugg,
Motherteacher
, 116.

28
When a teacher took a sick day:
Harris,
Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1892–1893
, 546.

29
Dr. E. Schlee, a German principal:
Ibid., 534–47.

30
Stephan Waetzoldt, a Berlin professor:
Ibid., 567.

31
the “startling heresy”:
Belva A. Lockwood, “My Efforts to Become a Lawyer,”
Lippincott's Monthly Magazine
(1888): 215–29.

32
“odious … an indignity”:
Ibid., 216.

33
H.R. 1571:
Jill Norgren,
Belva Lockwood: The Woman Who Would Be President
(New York: New York University Press, 2007), 35–39.

34
she launched a presidential run:
Christine Stansell,
The Feminist Promise: 1792 to the Present
(New York: Modern Library, 2010), 99.

1
“All of proper age”:
E. L Pierce to Salmon P. Chase, “The Negroes at Port Royal: Report to the Hon. Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury” (1862). Available at
http://​faculty.​assumption.​edu/​aas/​Reports/​negroesatportroyal.​html
.

2
the Port Royal Experiment:
Willie Lee Rose,
Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment
(Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1964).

3
“There are at Port Royal”:
Pierce, “The Negroes at Port Royal.”

4
a “constant, galling sense”:
Charlotte Forten Grimké,
The Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimké
, ed. Brenda Stevenson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 111, 140.

5
“that God in his goodness”:
Ibid., 376.

6
“a strange, wild dream”:
Ibid., 390.

7
“a constant delight and recreation”:
Charlotte Forten, “Life on the Sea Islands, Part I,”
The Atlantic Monthly
, May 1864.

8
“dreadfully wearying”:
Grimké,
The Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimké
, 399.

9
she wrote to philanthropists in Philadelphia:
Recounted in Forten, “Life on the Sea Islands, Part I”; and Charlotte Forten, “Life on the Sea Islands, Part II,”
The Atlantic Monthly
, May and June 1864.

10
Haitian revolutionary Toussaint L'Ouverture:
The Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimké
, 397–98.

11
“Oh, none in all the world before”:
From John Greenleaf Whittier,
Anti-Slavery
Poems: Songs of Labor and Reform
(New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1888), 238–39.

12
“very proud and happy”:
Forten, “Life on the Sea Islands, Part II.”

13
“Schoolhouses are burnt”:
Douglas quoted in Meyer Weinberg,
A Chance to Learn: The History of Race and Education in the United States
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 43.

14
“He found … that in spite”:
Pauli Murray,
Proud Shoes: The Story of an American Family
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1999), 179.

15
“one of the happiest periods of my life”:
Booker T. Washington,
Up from Slavery
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1901), 38–39.

16
In total, the Freedmen's Bureau spent:
Weinberg,
A Chance to Learn
, 43.

17
southern states spent three times more:
Ibid., 57.

18
walk five miles:
Ibid., 68.

19
black teachers to receive only one-third the pay:
W. E. B. Du Bois and Augustus Granville Dill, “The Common School and the Negro American,” in the
Atlanta University Publications
, Numbers 16–20 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1969), 132.

20
“fractions and spelling”:
W. E. B. Du Bois, “A Negro Schoolmaster in the New South”,
The Atlantic Monthly
, January 1899.

21
“touched the very shadow of slavery”:
W. E. B. Du Bois,
The Autobiography of W. E. B. Du Bois
(New York: International Publishers, 1968), 114.

22
“[T]he fine faith the children had”
and
“their weak wings”:
Du Bois, “A Negro Schoolmaster in the New South,” 102.

23
Hampton, which taught only the equivalent:
Robert J. Norrell,
Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009), 31.

24
“One man may go into a community”:
Washington,
Up from Slavery
, 72.

25
Du Bois's bitterness:
see W. E. B. Du Bois,
The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques, 1906–1960
, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1973), 28; and
The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois
, vol. 2, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1976), 430.

26
“It was not enough”:
W. E. B. Du Bois,
The Souls of Black Folk
(New York: Bantam, 1903), 73.

27
Villard fumed in a letter to Washington:
The Booker T. Washington Papers
, vol. 4, 1895–1898, ed. Louis R. Harlan, Stuart B. Kaufman, Barbara S. Kraft, and Raymond W. Smock (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 304.

28
He responded to Villard:
Ibid., 311–12.

29
on northern fund-raising expeditions:
Norrell,
Up from History
, 97.

30
“to cope with the white world”:
Du Bois,
The Education of Black People
, 63–66.

31
“Washington stands for Negro submission”:
The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois
, vol. 1, 167.

32
detailed, practical advice:
Best articulated in his “Sunday Talk” of April 28, 1895, in
The Booker T. Washington Papers
, vol. 3, 1889–1895, ed.
Louis R. Harlan, Stuart B. Kaufman, and Raymond W. Smock (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1974), 549–51.

33
Both men lobbied:
The Booker T. Washington Papers
, vol. 2, 1860–1889, ed. Louis R. Harlan and Peter R. Daniel (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 284–85; and
The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois
, vol. 2, 139–40.

34
received significant federal funding:
See Donald Roe, “The Dual School System in the District of Columbia, 1862–1954: Origins, Problems, Protests,”
Washington History
16, no. 2 (2004): 26–43.

35
“missionary spirit”:
The Booker T. Washington Papers
, vol. 3, 552.

36
“Your real duty”:
The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois
, vol. 2, 8–9.

37
“My mother was a slave”:
The Voice of Anna Julia Cooper
, ed. Charles Lemert and Esme Bhan (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998), 331.

38
her application letter to Oberlin president:
Leona C. Gabel,
From Slavery to the Sorbonne and Beyond: The Life and Writings of Anna J. Cooper
(Northampton, MA: Smith College Libraries, 1982), 18.

39
equal-per-pupil spending:
Robert A. Margo,
Race and Schooling in the South, 1880–1950: An Economic History
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 40, 54.

40
disenfranchised more than half:
Helen G. Edmonds,
The Negro and Fusion Politics in North Carolina, 1894–1901
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1951), 211–14.

41
the state amended its constitution:
Margo,
Race and Schooling in the South
, 37.

42
Du Bois conducted a survey:
Du Bois and Dill, “The Common School and the Negro American,” 32, 50.

43
In 1899, M Street students:
Karen A. Johnson,
Uplifting the Women and the Race: The Educational Philosophies and Social Activism of Anna Julia Cooper and Nannie Helen Burroughs
(New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), 54.

44
university presidents and judges:
Gabel,
From Slavery to the Sorbonne and Beyond
, 28–29.

45
Félix Klein visited Cooper's classroom:
Félix Klein,
In the Land of the Strenuous Life
(Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1905), 292–96.

46
“the colored woman's office”:
The Voice of Anna Julia Cooper
, 117.

47
“The earnest well trained Christian”:
Ibid., 87.

48
“The Solitude of Self”:
DuBois, ed.,
The Elizabeth Cady Stanton—Susan B. Anthony Reader
,
247–48
.

49
“ ‘I am my Sister's keeper!' ”:
The Voice of Anna Julia Cooper
,
64
.

50
“no shirking, no skulking”:
Ibid., 132.

51
“sympathetic methods”:
Johnson,
Uplifting the Women and the Race
, 108.

52
“Tuskegee machine”:
Du Bois,
The Autobiography of W. E. B. Du Bois
, 252–53.

53
Washington personally intervened:
This incident is recounted by Du Bois
in his 1968
Autobiography
(pp. 252–53) and investigated in depth by two of the men's biographers: David Levering Lewis, in
W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919: Biography of a Race
(New York: Owl Books, 1994), 168–70; and Robert Norrell in
Up from History
(pp. 225–33).

54
campaign of character assassination:
The Voice of Anna Julia Cooper
, 9–13.