The Psychology Book (32 page)

and it is the psychoanalyst’s job to

interpret the messages using the

tools of psychoanalysis. ❯❯

Freud’s patients
would recline on

this couch in his treatment room while

they talked. Freud would sit out of sight

while he listened for clues to the source

of the patient’s internal conflicts.

98 SIGMUND FREUD

There are several techniques that

childhood, when nakedness was

allow the unconscious to emerge.

not frowned upon and there was

One of the first to be discussed

no sense of shame. In dreams

by Freud at length was dream

where the dreamer feels

analysis; he famously studied

embarrassment, the other people

his own dreams in his book,
The

in the dream generally seem

The interpretation of

Interpretation of Dreams.
He

oblivious, lending support to a

dreams is the royal road to

claimed that every dream enacts

wish-fulfilment interpretation

knowledge of the unconscious

a wish fulfilment, and the more

where the dreamer wants to leave

activities of the mind.

unpalatable the wish is to our

behind shame and restriction.

Sigmund Freud

conscious mind, the more hidden

Even buildings and structures

or distorted the desire becomes in

have coded meanings; stairwells,

our dreams. So the unconscious,

mine shafts, locked doors, or a

he says, sends messages to our

small building in a narrow recess

conscious mind in code. For

all represent repressed sexual

instance, Freud discusses dreams

feelings, according to Freud.

where the dreamer is naked—the

primary source for these dreams in

Accessing the unconscious

or emotion. It is an involuntary

most people is memories from early

Other well-known ways in which

substitution of one word for

the unconscious reveals itself are

another that sounds similar but

through Freudian slips and the

inadvertently reveals something the

Salvador Dali’s
The Persistence of

process of free association. A

person really feels. For instance, a

Memory
(1931) is a surrealist vision

Freudian slip is a verbal error, or

man might thank a woman he finds

of time passing, leading to decay and

death. Its fantastical quality suggests

“slip of the tongue,” and it is said to

desirable for making “the
breast

the Freudian process of dream analysis.

reveal a repressed belief, thought,

dinner ever,” the slip revealing his

PSYCHOTHERAPY 99

true thoughts. Freud used the free-

describes the act of releasing

association technique (developed

and feeling the deep emotions

by Carl Jung), whereby patients

associated with repressed

heard a word and were then invited

memories. If the significant

to say the first word that came into

event—such as the death of a

their mind. He believed that this

parent—was not fully experienced

process allowed the unconscious

at the time because it was too

to break through because our mind

overwhelming, the difficulty and

uses automatic associations, so

the energy remain, to be released

“hidden” thoughts are voiced

at the moment of catharsis.

before the conscious mind has

a chance to interrupt.

School of psychoanalysis

In order to help an individual

Freud founded the prominent

emerge from a repressed state and

Psychoanalytic Society in Vienna,

Sigmund Freud

begin to consciously deal with the

from which he exerted his

real issues that are affecting him

powerful influence on the mental

Born Sigismund Schlomo

Freud in Freiberg, Moravia,

or her, Freud believed that it is

health community of the time,

Freud was openly his mother’s

necessary to access repressed

training others in his methods and

favorite child; she called

feelings. For example, if a man finds

acting as the authority on what

him “Golden Siggie.” When

it difficult to confront others, he will

was acceptable practice. Over

Freud was four years old, the

choose to repress his feelings rather

time, his students and other

family moved to Vienna and

than deal with the confrontation.

professionals modified his ideas,

Sigismund became Sigmund.

Over time, however, these

eventually splitting the Society

Sigmund completed a medical

repressed emotions build up and

into three: the Freudians (who

degree and in 1886 he opened

reveal themselves in other ways.

remained true to Freud’s original

a medical practice specializing

Anger, anxiety, depression, drug

thoughts), the Kleinians (who

in neurology, and married

and alcohol abuse, or eating

followed the ideas of Melanie

Martha Bernays. Eventually,

disorders may all be the result of

Klein), and the Neo-Freudians

he developed the “talking

struggling to fend off feelings that

(a later group who incorporated

cure” that was to become an

have been repressed instead of

Freud’s ideas into their broader

entirely new psychological

being addressed. Unprocessed

practice). Modern psychoanalysis

approach: psychoanalysis.

In 1908, Freud established

emotions, Freud asserts, are

encompasses at least 22 different

the Psychoanalytic Society,

constantly threatening to break

schools of thought, though Freud’s

which ensured the future of

through, generating an increasingly

ideas continue to remain influential

his school of thought. During

uncomfortable tension and inciting

for all contemporary practitioners. ■

World War II, the Nazis

more and more extreme measures

publicly burned his work, and

to keep them down.

Freud moved to London. He

Analysis allows trapped

died by assisted suicide, after

memories and feelings to emerge,

enduring mouth cancer.

and the patient is often surprised

to feel the emotion that has been

Key works

buried. It is not uncommon for

Like the physical,

patients to find themselves moved

the psychical is not

1900
The Interpretation

to tears by an issue from many

necessarily in reality

of Dreams

years ago that they felt they had

what it appears to be.

1904
The Psychopathology

of Everyday Life

long since “got over.” This response

Sigmund Freud

1905
Three Essays on the

demonstrates that the event and the

Theory of Sexuality

emotion are still alive—still holding

1930
Civilization and Its

emotional energy—and have been

Discontents

repressed rather than dealt with.

In Freudian terms, “catharsis”

100

THE NEUROTIC CARRIES

A FEELING OF INFERIORITY

WITH HIM CONSTANTLY

ALFRED ADLER (1870–1937)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

F
reudian thinking dominated psychology was also influenced

psychotherapy in the late

by present and conscious forces,

19th century, but Freud’s

and that the influence of the social

approach was limited to addressing

realm and environment was

Individual psychology

unconscious drives and the legacy

equally vital. Adler founded

of an individual’s past. Alfred Adler

his own approach, individual

BEFORE

was the first psychoanalyst to

psychology, based on these ideas.

1896
William James says that

expand psychological theory

Adler’s particular interest in

self-esteem is about a ratio of

beyond the Freudian viewpoint,

inferiority and the positive and

“goals satisfied” to “goals

suggesting that a person’s

negative effects of self-esteem

unmet” and can be raised

by lowering expectations as

well as through achievements.

1902
Charles Horton Cooley

Every child feels
inferior
because stronger,

describes the “looking glass

smarter people surround them.

self;” the way we view

ourselves is based on how we

imagine other people view us.

AFTER

Inferiority
motivates
them to try to do and achieve things.

1943
Abraham Maslow says

that to feel both necessary

and good about ourselves we

need achievements as well

as respect from others.

In a
balanced psyche
,

In an
imbalanced psyche
,

success relieves feelings

success doesn’t relieve

1960s
British psychologist

of inferiority…

feelings of inferiority…

Michael Argyle states that

comparison shapes self-esteem;

we feel better when we feel

more successful than others,

and worse when we feel less

… and
confidence

…and an
inferiority

successful than others.

develops.

complex
develops.