The People of the Eye: Deaf Ethnicity and Ancestry (14 page)

47 Smith, "Deaf People In Context," quotation from p. 143.

48 C. J. Erting "Cultural Conflict in a School for Deaf Children," Anthropology and Education Quarterly 16 (3) (1985): 225-243. Reprinted in P. Higgins and J. Nash, eds., Understanding Deafness Socially (Springfield, Mass.: Charles C. Thomas, 1987); C. J. Erting, Deafness, Communication, Social Identity: Ethnography in a Preschool for Deaf Children. (Burtonsville, Md.: Linstok Press, 1994).

49 Mindess, Reading Between the Signs; Smith," Deaf People in Context."

50 S. A. Hall, "The Deaf Club is Like a Second Home": An Ethnography of Folklore Communication in American Sign Language. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Department of Folklore and Folklife, 1989); Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture; C. Padden, "The Decline Of Deaf Clubs in the United States: A Treatise on the Problem of Place," in H-D. Bauman (ed.), Open Your Eyes: Deaf Studies Talking (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 2008): 169-176.

51 One Deaf club member explained to a hearing scholar: "For Deaf people, the Deaf club is like a second home." S. Hall, "Door Into Deaf Culture: Folklore in an American Deaf Social Club," Sign Language Studies 73 (1991): 421-429. Deaf people feel that their clubs are "a piece of their own land in exile-an oasis in the world of sound," quotation from p. 421; B. Bragg and E. Bergman, Tales from a Clubroom (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1981), compare p. vii.

52 D. A. Stewart, Deaf Sport: The Impact of Sports Within the Deaf Community (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University. Press, 1991); www.usdeafsports. org (accessed 7/22/2010)

53 Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture.

54 Padden, "Decline of Deaf Clubs." For a discussion of clubs and the British Deaf community, see: J. Kyle, "The Deaf Community: Culture, Custom and Tradition," in S. Prillwitz and T. Vollhaber, eds., Sign Language Research and Application (Hamburg, Germany: Signum,1990),175-185.

55 Fishman, Rise and Fall.

56 T. A. Ulmer, "A Review of the Little Paper Family for 1944-45," in L Bragg, ed., Deaf-World (New York: New York University Press, 1945), 257-268.

57 The Deaf Mute was a monthly published by the North Carolina Institution for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind. J. Gannon, Deaf Heritage (Silver Spring, Md.: National Association of the Deaf, 1991). Newspapers for ethnically Deaf audiences, both national and local, useful for the study of New England Deaf history, are as follows: American Annals of the Deaf (1886-present); American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb (1847-1886); American Gazette for the Deaf, Boston, Mass. (1895); Association Review (1899-1909); Brooklyn Deaf-Mute Leader New York (1879-1881); C. Aug. Brown's Copy, Belfast, Maine (1890); Deaf Mutes' Friend, Henniker, N.H. (1869); Deaf Mutes' Journal, Mexico, New York (1874-1938); Deaf-Mute Times (1888); Gallaudet Guide and Deaf Mutes' Companion, Boston, Mass. (1860-1862); Lantern, Harlem, New York (1881); Literary Budget, Boston, Mass. (1874); Mexico Independent Deaf Mutes' Journal, Mexico, New York (1873-1874); National Deaf Mute Gazette, Boston, Mass. (1867-1868); National Deaf-Mute Leader New York (1879-1885); Silent People, Lake Village, N.H. (1880); Silent Worker, Trenton, N.J. (1888-1929); Silent World, Washington, D.C. (1871-1876).

58 Lane, Hoffineister and Bahan, Journey.

59 Smith, Ethnic Origins; Fishman, Language and Ethnicity.

60 W. Stokoe, H. R. Bernard, and C. Padden, "An Elite Group in Deaf Society," Sign Language Studies 12 (1976): 189-210.

61 Smith, "Deaf People In Context."

62 Hutchinson and Smith, Ethnicity. H-D. Bauman, J. Nelson, and H. Rose, eds., Signing the Body Poetic: Essays on American Sign Language Literature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).

63 N. Frishberg, "Signers of Tales: A Case for Literary Status of an Unwritten Language," Sign Language Studies 59 (1988):149-170.

64 Padden, "Deaf Community."

65 Supalla, Book of Name Signs.

66 Reported by Anna Witter Merrithew in Smith, "Deaf People In Context," pp. 200-201. "There is also the 'One Deaf railroad coupler story in which 'One Deaf invents the coupling mechanism that revolutionized the railroads, but the Hearing supervisor stole the plans and used them to his own advantage. The moral: hearing people take advantage of Deaf." (Dennis Cokely, personal communication, 2009).

67 Translated by Carol Padden. Some authors use de l'Epee.

68 C. M. de L'Epee, La Veritable Maniere d'Instruire Les Sourds Et Muets Confirmee Par Une Longue Experience (Paris: Nyon, 1784).

69 S. Rutherford, "Funny in deaf-not in hearing," Journal of American Folklore 96 (1983): 310-322.

70 S. Baldwin, Pictures in the Air: the Story of the National Theatre of the Deaf (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1995).

71 B. Schertz and H. Lane, "Elements of a Culture: Visions by Deaf Artists," Visual Anthropology Review 15 (2000): 20-36.

72 Smith, Ethnic Origins, quotation from p. 87. Also, J. Nagel, "Constructing Ethnicity: Creating and Recreating Ethnic Identity and Culture," Social Problems 41(1994): 152-176.

73 http:/ /83.137.212.42/sitearchive/cre/diversity/ethnicity/index.html (Consulted February 1, 2009). "Other relevant characteristics may (but need not) include common geographical origin or ancestry, a common language (not necessarily peculiar to the group), a common literature, a common religion and the status of either a minority or a dominant group within a larger community."

74 A. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community. (New York: Tavistock, 1985), quotation from p. 99.

75 Smith, Ethnic Origins

76 Ibid.

77 S. Cornell, "The Variable Ties That Bind: Content and Circumstance in Ethnic Processes," Ethnic and Racial Studies 19 (1996): 265-289; Smith, Ethnic Origins.

78 C. Krentz, A Mighty Change: An Anthology of Deaf American Writing 1816-1864 (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 2000), quotation from p. xiii. Krentz explains the various sources for this wording.

79 See, for full legend, Krentz, Mighty Change.

80 Legends: J. Gannon, Deaf Heritage (Silver Spring, Md.: National Association of the Deaf, 1991); Lane, Mind; Padden and Humphries, Deaf in America; Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture.

81 See Lane, Hoffineister and Bahan, Journey.

82 L. Rae, "Ceremonies at the Completion of the Gallaudet Monument," American Annals of the Deaf 7 (1854): 19-54.

83 Rae, ibid., quotation from p. 19.

84 Anon. "Personal." Gallaudet Guide and Deaf-Mute's Companion IN (1860): 30.

85 Krentz, Mighty Change; Lane, Mind.

86 Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture.

87 T. Humphries, "Scientific Explanation and Other Performance Acts in the Re-organization of DEAF," in D. J. Napoli, ed., Signs and Voices (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 2008), 3-20; quotation from page 16.

88 H-D. Bauman, "Postscript: Gallaudet Protests of 2006 and the myths of in/exclusion," in Bauman, Open Your Eyes, 327-336.

89 S. N. Barnartt and J. B. Christiansen, "Into Their Own Hands: The Deaf President Now Protest and its Consequences," in L. Bragg, Deaf-World, 333-347; J. B. Christiansen and S. M. Barnartt, Deaf President Now! the 1988 Revolution at Gallaudet University (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1995).

90 "This protest helped us find pride-and hope," USA Today, March 15,1988, p. 11a.

91 Smith, Ethnic Revival. Quotation from frontispiece attributed to Simon Dubnow in K. S. Pinson, ed., Nationalism and History (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1958).

92 Verkuyten, Social Psychology, quotation from p. 122; F. Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Boston: Little Brown, 1969).

93 Louder and Waddell point out that "The true locus of the continuity of the Quebecois ethnic group is more temporal than spatial: it is the family; Quebecois are scattered over Louisiana, New England, Quebec, the Maritime Provinces and in Western Canada." D. R. Louder and E. Waddell, French America: Mobility, Identity, and Minority Experience Across the Continent (Baton Rouge: University of Louisiana Press, 1993), quotation from p. 27.

94 M. W. Hughey and J. Vidich, "The New American Pluralism: Racial and Ethnic Solidarities and Their Sociological Implications," in M. W. Hughey, ed., New Tribalisms: the Resurgence of Race and Ethnicity (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 173-196, quotation from p. 181; S. Schalk, "Multicultural Foreign Policy," in Hughey, New Tribalisms, 299-316.

95 D. Bullard, Islay (Silver Spring Md.: TJ Publishers, 1986); Lane, Hoffmeister, and Bahan, Journey; Lane, Mind; J. Levesque, "Its a Deaf Deaf Deaf-World," D.C.ARA News 15 (1994): 2; J. Van Cleve and B. Crouch, A Place of their Own; Creating the Deaf Community in America (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1989); M. A. Winzer, "Deaf-Mutia: Responses to Alienation by the Deaf in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," American Annals of the Deaf 131 (1986): 29-32.

96 Fishman, Language and Ethnicity. J. Krejci and V. Velimsky, "Ethnic and Political Nations in Europe," in Hutchinson and Smith, Ethnicity, 209-221; Hughey and Vidich, "New American Pluralism." American scholars have posited a transnational identity of Afrocentricity that binds all people of African descent.

97 A Smith, "Chosen Peoples," in Hutchinson and Smith, Ethnicity, pp.189-197; Smith, Ethnic Origins; Smith, "Deaf People in Context."

98 J. Murray, "One Touch of Nature Makes the Whole World Kin: The Transnational Lives of Deaf Americans," 1870-1924 (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 2007).

99 Smith, "Deaf People in Context," quotation from p. 57.

100 There are, however, striking similarities between Deaf culture in the United States and that in Great Britain; see J. Kyle, "The Deaf Community: Culture, Custom and Tradition," in Prillwitz and Vollhaber, Sign Language Research, 175-185.

101 Lane, Mind, quotation from p. 219.

102 Berthier and others on universality of sign: F. Berthier, Sur l'Opinion du feu le Dr. Itard. Relative aux Facultes Intellectuelles et aux Qualites Morales des Sourds-Muets (Paris: Levy, 1852); Ladd, Understanding Deaf Culture; B. Mottez, "The Deaf-Mute Banquets and the Birth of the Deaf Movement," in R. Fischer and H. Lane, eds., Looking Back: A Reader on the History of Deaf Communities and their Sign Languages (Hamburg: Signum, 1993), 143-155; T. Supalla and R. Webb, "The Grammar of International Sign: A New Look at Pidgin Languages," in K. Emmorey and J. S. Reilly, eds., Language, Gesture, and Space (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995), 333-354; see p. 334.

103 R. Rosenstock, "An Investigation of International Sign: Analyzing Structure and Comprehension" (Ph.D. diss., Gallaudet University, 2004); B. Moody, "International Sign: A Practitioners Perspective," RID Journal of Interpretation, [n.v.] (2002): 12-13; Murray, "One Touch of Nature." "I[nternational] S[ign] users combine a relatively rich and structured grammar with a severely impoverished lexicon." Quotation from: L. Alsop, B. Well, and J. M. Brauti, "International Sign: The Creation of An International Deaf Community and Sign Language," in H. Bos and T. Schermer, eds., Sign Language Research: International Studies on Sign Language and Communication of the Deaf (Hamburg: Signum, 1994), quotation from p. 187; T. Supalla and R. Webb, "The Grammar Of International Sign: a New Look at Pidgin Languages," in Emmorey and Reilly, Language. We thank Rachel Rosenstock for her helpful observations on International Sign.

104 Murray, "One Touch of Nature," quotation from p. 46.

105 J. Carsten, Cultures of Relatedness: New Approaches to the Study of Kinship (Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge University Press, 2000); D. M. Schneider, A Critique of the Study of Kinship. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984), quotation from p. 191.

106 J. Carsten, "The Substance of Kinship and the Heat of the Hearth: Feeding, Personhood, and Relatedness among Malays in Pulau Langkawi," American Ethnologist 22 (1995): 223-241.

107 B. Malinowski, Coral Gardens and their Magic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965), quotation from p. 199.

108 Barth, Ethnic Groups; H. Jonsson, "Does the House Hold? History and the Shape of Mien (Yao) Society," Ethnohistory 48 (2001): 613-654.

109 B. Bodenhorn, "'He Used to be My Relative': Exploring the Bases of Relatedness Among the Inupiat of Northern Alaska," in Carsten, Cultures, 128-148.

110 G. Witherspoon, Navajo Kinship and Marriage (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).

111 Marger, Race and Ethnic Relation, quotation from p.13; S. Cornell, "Ties That Bind"; D. M. Schneider, "What is Kinship all About?" in P. Reining, ed., Kinship Studies in the Morgan Centennial Year (Washington, D.C.: Anthropological Society of Washington, 1972), 32-64;

112 Fishman, Language and Ethnicity, see p. 25.

113 I. Prattis, "Earthing Up the Wrong Tree," American Anthropologist 85 (1) (1983): 103-109. "To be Pathan is based on criteria that range from patrilinear descent, Islam, and the maintenance of Pathan custom with regard to hospitality, council structure, and domestic organization," quotation from p. 107; Barth, Ethnic Groups; Fenton, Ethnicity, seep. 149. Smith, Ethnic Origin; "At the centre of every ethnic ... stands a distinctive complex of myths, memories, and symbols, with peculiar claims about the group's origins and lines of descent. These claims and this complex provide the focus of a community's identity and its mythomoteur or constitutive political myth," quotation from p. 57.

114 Smith, Ethnic Origins, see p.58; Cornell and Hartmann, Ethnicity and Race.

115 Jenkins, Rethinking Ethnicity, see p.150.

116 W. Connor, "Beyond Reason: The Nature Of The Ethnonational Bond," in Hutchinson and Smith, Ethnicity, 69-75, quotation from p. 71.; D. Horowtiz, "Ethnic Identity," in Glazer and Moynihan, Ethnicity, 111-140; D. M. Schneider, "Kinship, Nationality and Religion In American Culture: Toward a Definition of Kinship," in R. F. Spencer, ed., Forms of Symbolic Action (Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington Press, 1969), 116-125; Schneider, "What Is Kinship"; Fishman, Language and Ethnicity.

J. Carsten, "Substance Of Kinship"; Carsten, Cultures; D. M. Schneider, American Kinship: A Cultural Account (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1968); D. M. Schneider, "Kinship, Nationality and Religion In American Culture: Toward a Definition of Kinship," in R. F. Spencer, ed., Forms of Symbolic Action (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969), 116-125; Schneider, "What Is Kinship?"; D. M. Schneider, The American Kin Universe: A Genealogical Study, Series in Social, Cultural, and Linguistic Anthropology (Chicago: Dept. of Anthropology, University of Chicago, 1975). Sociologist Mary Waters observes, "One may know that the Normans, the Franks, the Burgundians and the Gauls were once separate groups who came to be known as French, but that does not necessarily make the [ethnic] category French any less 'real' to a particular individual." M. C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America. (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1990), quotation from p. 17.