The Jewish Annotated New Testament (304 page)

11
:
Abaddon
, angelic king of the
bottomless pit
, the Abyss, Abbadon/
Apollyon
, personifying an ancient Hebrew parallel to Sheol: Prov 15.11; Job 26.6; 1QH 3.16–19. In the Tanakh, Abaddon usually refers to the place where the dead live, a synonym for Sheol (e.g., Ps 88.12), though in Job 28.22, as here, it refers to a demon of death.

9.13
–21:
The sixth trumpet.

13
:
Horns of … altar
, quarter-round protuberances in Israelite and other ancient altars; see Ex 27.2.

14
–15
: Unlike more traditional stories of the binding of demons in distant places (cf. Tob 8.3; Dan 10.13), the angel
releases
four vengeance angels.
Euphrates
, at the time the eastern border of the Roman Empire, marking the boundary between that and the Parthian Empire.

16
–19
: John envisions the angels’ armies as cavalries, whose terror lies in monstrous
horses
. The
fire and smoke and sulfur
from their mouths constitute three plagues.

20
–21
: The allusion to idolatry as well as bodily sins recalls Ezekiel’s vision of the punishment of Jerusalem (Ezek 8–9, cf. Ps 115; Isa 44.9–20).

21
:
Sorceries … thefts
, crimes associated with idolatry (Wis 12.3–11).

10.1
–11: Appearance of new angel to herald the final trumpet.
The
mighty angel
’s descent to declare the imminence of the seventh trumpet functions paradoxically to draw out the completion of the eschatological catastrophes.

1
–3
: The
cloud
and
seven thunders
are traditional imagery of storm theophany (cf. Ps 18.6–15; 29), and suggest the pillars of cloud and fire of Ex 13.21–23. The angel straddles
land
and
sea
to signify God’s dominion and judgment over both zones (cf. 10.6; 20.13).

4
: It is unclear what John was going to transcribe; it may be related to the ultimate revelation of “the mystery of God” (v. 7).

6
:
Lives forever
, God as source of eternal life (cf. Neh 9.5–6).

7
:
Mystery of God
, cf. Rom 16.25–26.
The prophets
, here including John the author.

8
–11
: In close imitation of Ezekiel (2.8–3.4), John receives a
scroll
to
eat
, allowing God’s (written) warnings to come from his mouth. As with Ezekiel’s scroll, the sweetness of its divine origin turns into the bitterness of the vengeful decrees he must announce.

11.1
–14: Interlude: Measurement of the current Temple and the eschatological acts of Moses and Elijah, the two witnesses. 1–2
: As in Ezekiel’s vision of the new Temple (Ezek 40–42), measurement denotes the appreciation of divine perfection, although here it is the seer, not an angel, who measures (cf. Ezek 40.3; Rev 21.9–21). That only the outer court of Gentiles is consigned to desecration could mean the vision originated before 70 CE.
Forty-two months
, equal to three and a half years, half of seven years, indicating a lengthy time but not one of total desecration. It also equals 1,260 days.

3
:
Two witnesses
typically identified as Moses and Elijah for their miraculous powers (11.5–6), which recall the legends of these figures (Ex 7–12; 1 Kings 17–21; 2 Kings 1).
Sackcloth
, a rough fabric (often made from goat or camel hair) similar to burlap, worn next to the skin as a sign of mourning and repentance (Jon 3.5–6,8; Isa 50.3).

4
:
Olive trees
, source of oil for Temple lamps (Zech 4.3–14).
Lampstands
, see 1.12n.

6
:
Shut the sky
, bring a drought as Elijah did (1 Kings 17.1).
Blood … plague
, as in the Exodus tradition (see 8.7–9nn.).

7
:
Beast
, see 13.1; 17.8. A monster from the Abyss (cf. 9.2–3) symbolizing evil.

8
:
Great city
, Jerusalem, as indicated by the reference to Jesus’ crucifixion. This is one of the very few references to the historical Jesus in Revelation.
Sodom
is applied to Jerusalem in Ezek 16.46–56 (cf. Isa 1.10; Jer 23.14), an analogy to the city of violence and fornication of Gen 19.
Egypt
, the place of slavery.

9
:
Three and a half days
, cf. 11.1–2.
Peoples and tribes
, Jerusalem seen as overrun with Gentiles and with little care for dead bodies (cf. Ps 79.1–3; Tob 1–2).

10
:
Exchange presents
, parody of celebration.

11
:
Breath of life from God
, cf. Ezek 37.5,10, resurrection.

12
:
Come up here
, an ascension.
Cloud
, traditional means of heavenly transport (see Ezek 1.4; Ps 18.11–12; Dan 7.13;
4 Ezra
13.3; Mk 13.26).

11.15
–19: The seventh trumpet declares the new reign.
The seventh trumpet initiates a liturgical declaration of a shift in “kingdoms,” from worldly to divine dominion. Verb tenses describe God’s assumption of dominion as a completed, victorious act.

15
:
Kingdom of the world
, the earthly rulers.
Our Lord and of his Messiah
, the kingdom of God.
He will reign
, Ex 15.18.

18
: See Ps 2.1–3.

19
:
Temple in heaven
, see 4.1–11, and “The Heavenly Temple Cult,” p.
478
.
Flashes of lightning
, another storm theophany (cf. 4.5; 8.5; 10.3).

12.1
–6: The woman clothed with the sun. 1–2
: The vivid drama of the
pregnant
woman and the dragon is a portent or sign (“semeion”) rather than a specific heavenly being. The woman is comparable to other symbolic women in apocalyptic visions (
4 Ezra
9.38–10.54; Herm.
Vis
.) rather than identified as Mary (with whom she came eventually to be linked). She also recalls cosmic goddesses of the author’s time, like Isis and Astarte.
Twelve stars
, if the woman is Israel, from whom the messiah is born, these would be the twelve tribes.
Birth pangs
, draws on the prophetic metaphor of childbirth (Isa 7.14; 21.3; 26.17; 66.7; Jer 4.31; 6.24; 13.21).

3
–4a
:
Dragon
, soon to be identified in v. 9 as “Devil, Satan, and deceiver,” recalls in its
seven heads
and cosmic destructiveness the ancient Semitic chaos-monster Leviathan, portrayed in some ancient art with seven heads (cf. Ps 74.13–14; Job 40.25).
Ten horns
, possibly a reference to various rulers, but specific identification is not possible.

4b
: John imagines the dragon receiving the infant directly from the woman’s womb into its mouth.

5
:
Rule all the nations
,
Pss. Sol
. 17.22–24;
rod of iron
, Ps 2.9 (see 11.18n.).

6
:
Wilderness
, here a place of safety.
1,260 days
, forty-six months or three and a half years; see 11.1–2n. The motif of the pregnant woman chased by the dragon, here and in vv. 13–17, recalls the story of Leto (and her child, Apollo), pursued by Python. It is not surprising that a Jewish author from Asia Minor might draw out a vision rooted in prophetic oracles by means of regional mythology.

12.7
–9: War in heaven.
Like the great primordial theomachies (divine battles) of Titans versus gods, and Yahweh versus dragon (Isa 27.1; 51.9–10; Ps 74.12–15), the dragon and his angelic army battle Michael, God’s military angel (Dan 10; 12), and his host. The idea of armies amassing in heaven in preparation for eschatological battle is presumed in 2 Macc 3.25–26; 1QM; and Mt 26.53; see also Job 25.2–3.

9
:
Thrown down
, as were the Watchers in
1 En
. 6–21.
Ancient serpent
, usually taken to refer to that of Gen 3.1–7.
Devil … Satan
, compare Lk 10.18.

12.10
–12: Victorious declaration of Satan’s fall.
The text credits God and the Lamb rather than Michael’s forces, perhaps suggesting a later editorial addition to the vision itself.

10
:
Accuser
, referring to Satan (Heb “adversary, accuser”; see Job 1.6–12).

11
:
Blood of the Lamb
, see 5.6–7n.

12
:
Rejoice
, Isa 44.23; 49.13; Ps 96.11.
Woe to the earth and sea
may herald the arrival of beasts, ch 13.

12.13
–18:
The woman and the dragon.

14
:
Great eagle
, perhaps that of 8.13; see Ex 19.4.
Time and times, and half a time
, three and a half times (see 11.1–2n.).

15
–16
: The ancient Leviathan was associated with floods and uncontrollable waters (Ex 15.8; Ps 29.10).
Earth
(Gk “Gē,” cf. Gaia), is here a helpful (female) force; cf.
2 Bar
. 6.8–9.

17
:
Her children
, those of whom John approves.
Commandments
, “mitzvot.” John envisions those who keep Mosaic Torah.