The Day We Found the Universe (44 page)
Read The Day We Found the Universe Online
Authors: Marcia Bartusiak
Shapley's former boss and harshest critic,
Walter Adams
, succeeded Hale as director of the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1923 and remained at that post until his retirement in 1946. He continued to work at the Hale Solar Laboratory in Pasadena until his death ten years later. Staff astronomers on Mount Wilson noticed that Adams was more at ease once Shapley left the observatory, and the two actually reconciled a few years later. For Adams, Shapley was easier to take once he was firmly ensconced at Harvard. It is interesting to note, however, that when Adams wrote a thirty-nine-page memoir of his early days at Mount Wilson, published by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1947, he made no mention of Shapley whatsoever.
Adriaan van Maanen
was on staff at the Mount Wilson Observatory for thirty-four years. For a while, he hoped that his flawed spiral measures would still have value by at least demonstrating a spiral's direction of rotation. But in the early 1940s Hubble proved once and for all that van Maanen had been wrong about that as well; as others had seen earlier, a spiral's arms are trailing as they rotate, not leading. Van Maanen died of a heart attack in 1946. Just weeks before his death he finished the measurement of his five hundredth parallax field at the observatory's Pasadena headquarters. Though he was wrong on spiral rotations, van Maanen remained a world-class surveyor of stellar parallaxes.
Georges Lemaître
made few notable contributions to cosmology after 1934 but continued to publish reviews and discussions. Although Einstein abandoned the cosmological constant λ in 1931, Lemaître continued to champion it. They had friendly arguments about this issue whenever they met, which led to the joke that “everywhere the two men went, the lambda was sure to go.” Lemaître went on to do important work in celestial mechanics and pioneered the use of electronic computers for numerical calculations. He always hoped the explosive origin of the universe would be validated by astronomical observations and at last received news of the discovery of the cosmic microwave background, the remnant echo of the Big Bang, shortly before he died in 1966. His successor at Louvain, Odon Godart, brought the July 1, 1965, issue of the
Astrophysical Journal
that contained the Nobel Prize-winning report to Lemaître's hospital bed.
After his great surge of creativity between 1905 and 1917—the period when he generated both special and general relativity, introduced us to the particle of light called a photon, and fashioned the first relativistic model of the universe—
Albert Einstein
stepped away from further major developments in either quantum or cosmological theory and primarily tried, unsuccessfully, linking the forces of nature in one grand unified theory. He died in 1955, still thinking the cosmological constant was his biggest blunder. Ironically, astronomers have recently brought back the constant to help explain a universe that is not only expanding but accelerating, a behavior that Lemaître anticipated in the 1930s.
Notes
Abbreviations
| AIP | Niels Bohr Library and Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, Maryland |
| CA | The Caltech Institute Archives, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California |
| HL | Henry Huntington Library, San Marino, California |
| HP | George Ellery Hale Papers, Caltech Institute Archives, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. (There is also a microfilm edition of these papers at other libraries.) |
| HUA | Harvard University Archives, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts |
| HUB | Hubble Papers, Henry Huntington Library, San Marino, California |
| LOA | Mary Lea Shane Archives of the Lick Observatory, University of California, Santa Cruz, California |
| LPV | Plate Vault, Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, California |
| LWA | Lowell Observatory Archives, Flagstaff, Arizona |
| MWDF | Mount Wilson Observatory Director's Files, Henry Huntington Library, San Marino, California |
| NAS | The Archives of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. |
Preface: January 1, 1925
ix “redolent of orchids and pleasant, cheerful snobbery”: Fitzgerald (1925), p. 133.
ix some four thousand scientists descended upon Washington, D.C.: “Thirty-Third Meeting” (1925), p. 245.
x uncharacteristically chatty: According to Grace Coolidge, the president's wife, a young woman once sat next to her husband at a dinner party and bet the normally taciturn president that she could wring at least three words of conversation from him. Coolidge promptly responded, “You lose.”
x “It has taken endless ages to create in men”: “Welfare of World Depends on Science, Coolidge Declares” (1925), pp. 1, 9.
x “occurred an event which was marked on the program”: “Thirty-Third Meeting of the American Astronomical Society” (1925), p. 159.
x give holiday sleds a good tryout: “Blanket of Snow Covers the City” (1925), p. 1.
x walked the short distance to the newly constructed Corcoran Hall: During World War II, with scientists working under a government contract designed to develop new technologies for the conflict, the basement of Corcoran Hall was the birthplace of the bazooka.
xi a paper modestly titled “Cepheids in Spiral Nebulae” was presented: “Thirty-third Meeting of the American Astronomical Society” (1925), p. 159.
xi the only spiral nebulae in the nighttime sky that can be seen with the naked eye: The center of the Triangulum galaxy can be seen with the naked eye only under exceptionally good conditions. Viewing the Andromeda nucleus without the aid of a telescope is easier.
xii Henry Norris Russell stood in for Hubble that morning: “Thirty-third Meeting of the American Astronomical Society” (1925), p. 159.
xii Could I possibly be wrong?: Sandage (2004), p. 528; Berendzen and Hoskin (1971), p. 11.
xiv “This was an era of extraordinary change”: Frost (1933), p. 124.
xv “so far as astronomy is concerned … we do appear”: Newcomb (1888), pp. 69– 70.
xvi “Hubble's drive, scientific ability, and communication skills”: Osterbrock, Brashear, and Gwinn (1990), p. 1.
xvii
cosmos firma:
An ancient Roman would more correctly have said
cosmos firmus
(for proper matching of masculine adjective to masculine noun), but I wanted to maintain the mellifluous sound and metaphorical connection to
terra firma
.
xviii book was labeled a “classic”: Mayall (1937), p. 42.
xviii “[His] picture differs from today's only in details”: From the “Forward” to the 1982 edition of Hubble's
Realm of the Nebulae
(1936), pp. xv–xvi.
1. The Little Republic of Science
3 An immense continent of rock … southward along California's coastline: J. McPhee (1998), pp. 125, 542.
4 “First on top” … “noble and true”: Wright (2003), pp. 25–27.
4 “the public mind in this country”: Ibid., p. 14.
4 the most innovative work at Lick: C. Donald Shane, Lick director in the 1950s, said that “the work [Keeler] did … with the Crossley was the most important work done on the mountain at that time.” AIP, interview of C. Donald Shane by Helen Wright on July 11, 1967.
4 Ptolemy Ridge: Keeler (1900b), p. 326.
6 Keeler's celestial curiosity … lunar craters and the planets: “The New Director of Lick” (1898), p. 7. Also from Osterbrock (1984); Donald Osterbrock wrote the definitive biography of Keeler, and many of the details of Keeler's personal life were drawn from this outstanding work on nineteenth-century American astronomy.
6 a “constant succession of fire balls”: Olmsted (1834), p. 365.
6 “the most remarkable in its appearance”: Olmsted (1866), p. 223.
7 “extraordinary that a people”: Trollope (1949), p. 158.
7 “lighthouse in the sky”: White (1995), p. 124.
7 “Some Americans, haunted by a nagging sense”: Miller (1970), p. 27.
7 “lankey green country boy” … “cracker drawl”: Osterbrock (1984), pp. 8–10.
8 “Starting from essentially zero”: Brush (1979), p. 48.
8 Lick earned his riches … 1906 earthquake: Ibid., pp. 36–37; Wright (2003), pp. 2, 5; Osterbrock, Gustafson, and Unruh (1988), pp. 3–4.
10 Without a legitimate heir: As an adult, Lick's illegitimate son, John Lick, came out to California to meet his father and stayed around for a number of years. They never got along, and Lick refused to acknowledge him as a son, leaving him only $3,000 in his will. After Lick's death, though, John filed suit for his father's fortune, claiming he was the rightful heir. After years of legal strife, Lick's board of trustees finally agreed to settle, giving John the sum of $533,000 for both himself and other contesting relatives. See Osterbrock (1984), pp. 40–43.
10 $4 million: Wright (2003), p. 6.
10 “If I had your wealth”: Ibid., p. 7.
10 Louis Agassiz gave a widely reported lecture: Miller (1970), p. 100.
10 All these lessons … Fourth and Market: Osterbrock (1984), p. 38; Wright (2003), p. 28; Osterbrock, Gustafson, and Unruh (1988), p. 12.
10 “For the Air”: Newton (1717), p. 98.
11 Over time Lick came to accept: Osterbrock (1984), p. 39.
12 “little Republic of Science”: LOA, Keeler Papers, Box 31; Shinn (c. 1890).
12 “I intend to rot like a gentleman”: Osterbrock (1984), p. 53; Wright (2003), p. 61.
12 The choice for director: Osterbrock (1984), p. 42.
2. A Rather Remarkable Number of Nebulae
13 There are some 360 switchbacks in all, and some were even given special names: AIP, interview of Douglas Aitken by David DeVorkin on July 23, 1977.
13 “The view from the observatory peak”: LOA, Keeler Papers, Box 6, Folder 4.
14 “If he has the right ring”: Osterbrock (1986), p. 53.
14 Often in the wintertime, storms would sweep over the mountain: Holden (1891), p. 73.
14 “a terrible old blow and grumbler” … “worthless”: LOA, Keeler to Holden, January 6, 1888.
14 “no inconvenience was felt” … “spider's thread.” Keeler (1888a, 1888b); LOA, Keeler to Holden, January 14, 1888. When the
Voyager
probe in the 1980s discovered a new separation in Saturn's rings, it was named the Keeler Gap in honor of the Lick astronomer.
15 displayed at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair: Osterbrock and Cruikshank (1983), p. 168.
15 “He was tolerant, amused and unwilling to take sides”: Osterbrock (1984), p. 235.
15 “Beautiful and accurate”: Barnard (1891), p. 546.
19 “as though it were a fort in hostile territory”: AIP, interview of Lawrence Aller by David DeVorkin on August 18, 1979.
19 “I am a human being first”: Osterbrock (1984), p. 108.
20 Saturn's rings were not solid: Maxwell (1983).
20 dispatched a report to the newly established
Astrophysical Journal:
Keeler (1895).
20 Crossley reflector: Keeler (1900b), p. 325.
20 Early telescopic mirrors: Osterbrock, Gustafson, and Unruh (1988), p. 22.
22 small zinc box: Babcock (1896).
22 “a pile of junk”: Osterbrock (1984), p. 246.
22 “the czar,” “the dictator”: Ibid., pp. 233, 240.
22 went out to say good-bye: AIP, interview of C. Donald Shane by Elizabeth Calciano in 1969.
22 Keeler, by this time, was getting restless … raise his salary: Osterbrock (1984), pp. 239–44.
23 Keeler won the vote by 12 to 9: Ibid., p. 268.
23 “Stay with us, Keeler” LOA, Keeler Papers, Box 31, newspaper clipping.
23 telegraphed his acceptance: Osterbrock (1984), p. 270.
24 Keeler went back to Mount Hamilton … oiled dirt: Campbell (1971), pp. 9, 53–54, 66; Osterbrock (1984), pp. 278–79.
24 “It [was] like being shipwrecked on an island”: Campbell (1971), p. 9.
24 If a hostess sent out an invitation for an evening gathering: Hussey (1903), p. 32.
24 Occasionally a ground squirrel would carry off a ball: Ibid., p. 30.
24 A biologist visiting Mount Hamilton: Shinn (c. 1890).
24 “There are no astronomical phenomena”: Osterbrock (1984), p. 291.
25 “No member of the staff was asked”: Campbell (1900a), p. 144.
25 acquired a stigma: Osterbrock (1984), p. 245.
26 Roberts had pioneered: Ibid., p. 169.
26 “hand down to our successors”: Pang (1997), p. 177.
