The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1529 page)

(1545–1622).
Scottish Reformer and theologian, concerned especially with educational reform. Entrusted in 1575 with the responsibility of compiling the
Second Book of Discipline
, he vigorously opposed
episcopacy
and so incurred the displeasure of James VI of Scotland (I of England). Imprisoned in the Tower of London for four years, he was released in 1611 to become professor of biblical theology at the University of Sedan.

 
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see
FOUR LAST THINGS
.

 
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(Aram., ‘word’). The Word of God by which the universe was created. The term ‘memra’ occurs in the
Targum
literature with similar connotations to the Gk. term
logos
, understood by
Philo
to mean the mind of God as revealed in creation.

 
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Menander
:

see
MILINDAPAÑHA
.

 
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(Chin., Meng Tzu/Mengzi;
c.
391–
c.
308 BCE). Early
Confucian
thinker. Mencius' ideas appear in a book bearing his name that contains sections, often unconnected, which range from brief aphorisms to long dialogues. Perhaps written by Mencius and his disciples, it was edited, with parts discarded, in the 2nd cent. The book became extraordinarly influential:
Chu
Hsi (1130–1200) declared it one of the
Four Books
, and the Mongol court in 1315 included it in the civil-service exams; from that time forward its impact continued to grow.
Neo-Confucians
read Mencius in terms of their own pursuit of the ‘enlightenment’ that occurs through contact with a moral and omniscient mind. But Mencius's own concern is to show Confucianism's superiority to (especially) two positions: one, the proto-utilitarianism of
Mohism
, aiming to replace traditional norms with rational judgements about what will benefit most people; the other, exemplified by
Yang Chu
, counselling people to reject social responsibility and pursue individual satisfaction. Against these ideas, Mencius argues that Heaven (
T’ien
) produces in human beings four potentials that define human nature, making it good, giving birth to four central virtues when actualized: benevolence (
jen
), propriety (
li
), practical wisdom (
chih
), and
i
, ‘duty’ or ‘proper behaviour’. The cultivation of these potentials is a person's most significant task. After his death, he was dubbed the Second Sage, and his spirit tablet (
ancestral
cult) was placed next to that of Confucius in the Confucian temples.

 
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(1729–86).
Jewish Enlightenment philosopher. His original interest was in the development and spread of German culture—the Christian writer, G. E.
Lessing
, was a close personal friend; but after 1769, when he became involved in a dispute on the Jewish religion, he confined his writing to Jewish matters. His early philosophical works dealt with aesthetics and human psychology. In 1763, his
Abhandlung ueber die Evidenz in Metaphysischen Wissenschaften
, on the philosophy of religion, won the first prize of the Prussian Royal Academy of Science, but as a Jew, he was rejected for membership of the Academy. He became involved in a religious dispute with the Swiss clergyman, Johann Lavater. His response to Lavater's attack was published as
Schreiben an den Herrn Diaconus Lavater zu Zuerich
(1770). This prompted widespread debate and caused Mendelssohn to concentrate his activities on improving the civic status of the Jews and on devising a philosophical justification for his belief in Judaism. His
Jerusalem: Oder, verber religioese Macht und Judenthum
(1783) summarized his thoughts. In that spirit, he prepared Jews to live in the midst of German life, translating the
Pentateuch
into German (transliterated into Hebrew letters) and adding to it a rationalizing Hebrew commentary. He is regarded as the forerunner of
Reform Judaism
.