The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1493 page)

 
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(from Span., ‘swine’). Baptized Jews of Spain and Portugal, i.e.
anusim
, or forced converts. Jews in Spain were forced to convert to Christianity in 1391 and in Portugal in 1497. These ‘new Christians’ were always suspected of harbouring their original faith and were renowned for their reluctance to eat pork. Particularly after the introduction of the
Inquisition
into Spain in 1481 and into Portugal in 1536, many Marranos fled abroad. Marranos lived undisturbed in many
Protestant
states. In
Roman Catholic
countries, their situation was far more precarious, and in most places they had to maintain the semblance of Catholicism.

 
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Marriage and divorce
.

Marriage is the union between at least two people (in
polygamy
and polyandry it may be more), in which commitment is made and responsibility undertaken. It is recognized and controlled in society, because of its obvious relation to the procreation and nurture of the next generation. Because of the profound consequences of the institution of marriage (yielding experience including, but going far beyond, the pleasure of sexual satisfaction), marriage is a frequent metaphor in religions for union with God. But it is recognized that not all marriages are realized in relation to the goals, however described. Divorce is regarded in general as at least a matter of regret, more often as a matter of defeat and fault. The facilities for divorce therefore differ between religions.
Judaism
According to the Hebrew scriptures, marriage is a state instituted by God because ‘it is not good that the man should be alone’ (Genesis 2. 18). Although various biblical figures (such as
Jacob
,
Saul
,
David
, etc.) had more than one wife, monogamy seems to have been the general rule, and the prophets used marriage as an illustration of God's relationship with Israel. Certain marriages, particularly between close relatives, were forbidden, and marriage between Jew and
idolater
was strongly condemned (see
EZRA
). Although a continuing marriage was much to be desired, divorce was permitted (Deuteronomy 24. 1–4). The actual marriage ceremony was in two parts, the
kiddushin
or
erusin
(betrothal) and the
nissuin
(marriage proper). In the Middle Ages, the two parts were combined. The ceremony is performed under a
huppah
. The bridegroom has previously undertaken the obligations of the
ketubbah
(marriage contract) and is led to the bride.
Blessings
are recited over wine and the couple drink from the same cup. The bridegroom places a ring on the bride's finger and recites in Hebrew the formula, ‘Behold you are consecrated to me with this ring according to the Law of Moses and Israel’. The ketubbah is read out; seven
benedictions
over wine are recited; and, in most communities, the bridegroom crushes a glass with his foot.
Although divorce is a matter of great regret, it is possible. According to Jewish law, if both husband and wife agree, a husband may give a get (‘bill of divorce’) to his wife. Both husband and wife can demand a divorce if the spouse has a physical defect, or because of unsatisfactory conduct. It is, however, in a postghetto society notoriously difficult for the community to compel a husband to give a divorce, and if he refuses, the wife is tied; she cannot marry again, and any subsequent children will be
mamzerim
.
Since the husband is the one who must give the get, he must, necessarily, be found; otherwise, the wife remains
agunah
(‘tied woman’) and cannot remarry. In
Conservative Judaism
, a
takkanah
(1953) allows a clause to be inserted in the ketubbah whereby both parties agree to abide by a decision of the bet din if there is conflict. Reform Judaism has dropped the practice of the get. The law of divorce is covered in
B.Gittin
.
Christianity
Marriage, in the words of the
Book of Common Prayer
, ‘is an honourable estate’. The causes of marriage are three (for the procreation of children and their nurture, for a remedy against sin and to avoid fornication, and for the mutual society, help, and comfort that the one ought to have of the other, both in prosperity and adversity). In
Roman Catholic
understanding, marriage is a
sacrament
which creates a
vinculum
, an unbreakable (metaphysical) bond; it can only be brought to an end by a recognition, on various specific grounds, that it never happened in the first place, i.e. by annulment. Among other Christians, there is a more serious wrestling with the vision of Jesus Christ that marriage recreates the lost and disturbed conditions of the Garden of Eden. Uncertainty about the NT texts has led to a divergence of practice among Christians, some allowing remarriage after divorce (with a previous partner still living) in some circumstances, while others do not.
Islam
Marriage in Islam does not have to take place in a specifically religious context. It is thus a civil matter (so far as such distinctions can be drawn in Islam). Nevertheless, it is one of the signs (
ay
) of God. The word for a pair or a mate is
zawj
, which is a term used for marriage (
al-zawaj
), as also is
nik
h
, the marriage contract. There is debate in the schools of
shar
a
about whether marriage is a compulsory obligation. In general it is for those who can pay the dowry (
mahr
), who can support a wife and children, who is healthy, and who fears that otherwise he will commit fornication (
zin
); for women it is compulsory for those who have no other means of maintaining themselves and who fear zin
. Marriage is a contract between the two parties, often under the initiative of fathers or guardians. According to 2. 228, men have a degree or rank (
darajah
) over their wives, and in 4. 38 are ‘standing over them’ (
qawwumun
, which
may
mean ‘standing beside in support’). Marriage with non-Muslims, who might be suspected of
shirk
, is forbidden, but Muslim men are allowed to marry women who belong to
ahl al-Kit
b
(the people of the Book). The mahr is given by the groom to the bride, and it remains hers even in the event of a divorce (half of it if the marriage is dissolved before consummation). The amount of mahr is not stipulated in shar
a. Polygamy (up to four wives) is allowed in Qur
n 4. 3, provided they can be treated equitably (some believe that this condition can never be attained, and that in practice monogamy is required); Mu