Terror in the Balkans (51 page)

10. Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
52, 59–61.

11. John Horne and Alan Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001). See also Jeff Lipkes,
Rehearsals: The German Army in Belgium, August 1914
(Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007).

12. Förster, “Dreams and Nightmares: German Military Leadership and the Images of

Future Warfare 1871–1914,”; Isabel V. Hull,
Absolute Destruction: Military Culture

and the Practice of War in Imperial Germany
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), chap. 7.

13. Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
, 113–129, 425.

14. Ibid., 153–161.

15. For instance, for listings of Bavarian army units participating in the 1914 reprisals, see Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
, 600 (index).

16. Peter Lieb, “Aufstandsbekämpfung im strategischen Dilemma: Die deutsche Besat-

zung in der Ukraine 1918,” in
Die Besatzung der Ukraine 1918: Historischer Kontext—

Forschungsstand—Wirtschaftliche und Soziale Folgen
, ed. Wolfram Dornik and

Stefan Karner (Graz: Ludwig Boltzmann-Institut, 2008), 111–139.

17. John Horne and Alan Kramer, “War between Soldiers and Enemy Civilians 1914–

1915,” in
Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilisation on the Western Front

1914–1918
, ed. Roger Chickering and Stig Förster (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, 2000), 159–160.

18. Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
, 402–403; Richard M. Fattig, “Reprisal: The German Army and the Execution of Hostages during the

Second World War” (PhD thesis, University of California, 1980), 30–47, chap. 3.

19. On the German soldier’s perspective, see Bernd Ulrich, “Feldpostbriefe im Ersten

Weltkrieg: Bedeutung und Zensur,” in
Kriegsalltag: Die Rekonstruktion des Kriegs-

alltags als Aufgabe der historischen Forschung und der Friedenszerziehung
, ed. Peter Knoch (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1989), 40–83; Bernd Ulrich, “Feldpostbriefe des Ersten

Weltkrieges: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer alltagsgeschichtlichen Quelle,”

Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen
53 (1994): 73–84; Anne Lipp, “Friedenssucht und Durchhaltebereitschaft: Wahrnehumgen und Erfahrungen deutscher Soldaten

im Ersten Weltkrieg,”
Archiv für Sozialgeschichte
36 (1996): 279–292; Gerhard
278
Notes to Pages 33–36

Hirschfeld et al., eds.,
Kriegserfahrungen: Studien zur Sozial- und Mentalitätsgeschichte des Ersten Weltkrieges
(Essen: Klartext-Verlag, 1997); Philipp Witkop, ed.,
German Students’ War Letters
, trans. A. F. Wedd (Philadelphia: University of Penn-sylvania Press, 2002); Bernd Ulrich and Benjamin Ziemann, eds.,
Frontalltag im

Ersten Weltkrieg: Ein Historisches Lesebuch
(Essen: Klartext Verlag, 2008).

20. Robert G. L. Waite,
Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Ger-

many 1918–1923
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 23.

21. See in particular the sources in Ulrich and Ziemann,
Frontalltag im Ersten Welt-

krieg: Ein Historisches Lesebuch.

22. Tony Ashworth,
Trench Warfare, 1914–1918: The Live and Let Live System
(London: Pan Grand Strategy, 2004).

23. BKA. I Bayr. AK, 11/21/15. Korps-Befehl. Betr.: Verkehr mit dem Feind. The fi le listings in this endnote and in some other endnotes in this chapter are incomplete. At

the time of writing it was not possible to re-check the relevant listings. The complete

listings for these endnotes can instead be accessed via http://www.gcu.ac.uk/gsbs/

staff/drbenshepherd/. The other relevant endnotes are: 49, 65, 75, 77, 83, 84, 89–92,

96, 119.

24. On the western front as a multifacted experience, see David Englander, “Mutinies

and Military Morale,” in
The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War
, ed.

Hew Strachan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 191–203; Hew Strachan,

The First World War: A New History
(London: Simon and Schuster, 2003), chap. 6.

25. For a balanced appraisal of the extent to which Germany’s wartime generation was

“brutalized,” see Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the

First World War,
304–313.

26. Alon Rachamimov,
POWs and the Great War: Captivity on the Eastern Front

(Oxford: Berg, 2002), 43.

27. John Schindler, “Disaster on the Drina: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Serbia, 1914,”

War in History
9 (2002): 159–195. On the Royal-Imperial Army’s 1914 Serbian cam-

paigns, see also Günther Rothenburg, “The Austro-Hungarian Camapaign against

Serbia in 1914,”
Journal of Military History
53 (1998): 127–146; Hew Strachan,
The
First World War
, vol. 1,
To Arms
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 335–347.

28. Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War,
142–143. “[
Sic
]” pointed out by Kramer.

29. Ibid.

30. Geoffrey Wawro, “Morale in the Austro-Hungarian Army: The Evidence of

Habsburg Army Campaign Reports and Intelligence Offi cers,” in
Facing Arma-

geddon: The First World War Experience
, ed. Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (Bas-

ingstoke: Pen and Sword, 1996), 399–412; Mark Cornwall, “Morale and Patriotism

in the Austro-Hungarian Army, 1914–1918,” in
State, Society and Mobilization in

Europe during the First World War
, ed. John Horne (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1997), 184ff.; Mark Cornwall,
The Undermining of Austria-Hungary:

The Battle for Hearts and Minds
(London: Macmillan, 2000).

31. Andrej Mitrovic´,
Serbia’s Great War 1914–1918
(London: C. Hurst and Co., 2007), 312–326.

Notes to Pages 36–39
279

32. See also Walter Manoschek, “The Extermination of the Jews in Serbia” in
National
Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies
, ed. Ulrich Herbert (Oxford: Berghahn, 2000), 170–171.

33. Fred Singleton,
Twentieth-Century Yugoslavia
(London: Macmillan, 1976), 10; Tim Judah,
The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia
(New Haven, CT: Yale, 1997), 99. See also Mitrovic´,
Serbia’s Great War 1914–1918
.

34. Mitrovic´,
Serbia’s Great War 1914–1918
, 221–244.

35. Gumz, The
Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
231–

248. See also review by Matthew Stibbe in
German History
28, no. 3 (2010): 379–380.

36. Gumz, The
Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
134, 215–230.

37. Judah,
The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia,
99.

38. Mark Thompson,
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915–1919
(London: Faber and Faber, 2008). For an overview of the war on the Italian front from the

Austro-Hungarian viewpoint, see Holger R. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and

Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
(London: Hodder Arnold, 1997), 149–154, 336–350, 365–373.

39. Thompson,
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915–1919,
108, 194.

40. Ibid., 108.

41. Holger R. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
, 365.

42. Kriegsarchiv, Vienna (KA Vienna). Neue Feldakten (NFA) series 24, box 156 (24/156).

43. Sch.-Div. Kommando Truppendivisionskommandobefehl Nr. 111, 5/9/17, p. 3; ibid.,

43. Sch.-Div. Kommando Reservat-Truppendivisionskommandobefehl Nr. 63, Feld-

post 643, 6/5/17.

43. KA Vienna, NFA 195/1. K. u. k. Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 87, Feldpost 304, 8/1/18.

44. Thompson,
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915–1919.

45. Rothenburg,
The Army of Francis Joseph,
187; István Deák,
Beyond Nationalism:
A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Offi cer Corps 1848–1918
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 192; Norman Stone,
The Eastern Front, 1914–1917
, 2nd ed. (London: Penguin, 1998), 243; Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture

and Mass Killing in the First World War,
54–68.

46. Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War,
55–56.

47. Ibid., 55–57.

48. On the food situation in Austria-Hungary during the Great War, see Herwig,
The

First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918,
272–283; Maureen

Healy,
Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in

World War I
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), chap. 1. On the situation in Germany, see Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–

1918
, 283–295; Belinda Davis,
Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life
in World War I Berlin
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

49. KA Vienna, NFA. 11. Inf.-Div., 5/-9/15. K. u. k. 4. Armeekommando. Etappenkom-

mando, 8/6/15. Behandlung italienischer kriegsgefangener Offi ziere.

50. On the military course of the war on the eastern front, see Stone,
The Eastern Front,
1914–1917
; Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
,
280
Notes to Pages 39–42

81–96, 135–149, 204–227, 333–335. For more recent detailed treatment of German and

Austro-Hungarian combat performance on the eastern front during 1914 and 1915,

see Dennis E. Showalter,
Tannenberg: Clash of Empires, 1914
(Oxford: Brassey’s,

2004); Gerhard P. Groß, ed.,
Die vergessene Front: Der Osten 1914/15
(Paderborn: Schöningh, 2006), 29–146; Timothy C. Dowling,
The Brusilov Offensive
(Bloom-ington: Indiana University Press, 2008); Graydon A. Tunstall,
Blood on the Snow:

The Carpathian Winter War of 1915
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010).

51. Michael Geyer, “Gewalt und Gewalterfahrung im 20. Jahrhundert: Der Erste Welt-

krieg,” in
Der Tod als Maschinist: Der industrialisierte Krieg 1914–1918
, ed. Rolf Spilker and Bernd Ulrich (Osnabrück: Bramsche, 1998), 248ff.

52. Rothenburg, The
Army of Francis Joseph
, 177.

53. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
, 137.

54. Ethnic Italian troops serving in the Austro-Hungarian army.

55. KA Vienna, Akten der Truppenkörper, box 684. K. u. k. Infanterie-Regiment Nr.

87, 12/24/14. Kriegstagebuch, 8/1–12/31/14.

56. See Tunstall,
Blood on the Snow: The Carpathian Winter War of 1915
.

57. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
, 145. On

environmental conditions in the East, see also Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius,
War Land

on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World

War I
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 28–29.

58. Hans-Erich Volkmann, “Der Ostkrieg 1914/15 als Erlebnis- und Erfahrungswelt des

deutschen Militärs,” in
Die vergessene Front: Der Osten 1914/15
, ed. Gerhard P. Groß (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2006), 292; Eva Horn, “Im Osten nichts Neues: Deutsche

Literatur und die Ostfront des Ersten Weltkriegs,” in
Die vergessene Front: Der

Osten 1914/15
, ed. Gerhard P. Groß (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2006), 217–230.

59. Liulevicius,
War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and Ger-

man Occupation in World War I
, 29–30.

60. Volkmann, “Der Ostkrieg 1914/15 als Erlebnis- und Erfahrungswelt des deutschen

Militärs,” 272.

61. Lothar Höbelt, “‘So wie wir haben nicht einmal die Japaner angegriffen’: Öster-

reich-Ungarns Nordfront 1914/15,” in
Die vergessene Front: Der Osten 1914/15
, ed.

Gerhard P. Groß (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2006), 108–113.

62. KA Vienna, NFA 201/1. K. u. k. 57. Inf.-Div. Kommando, Feldpost 304, 8/4/18.

63. Liulevicius,
War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and Ger-

man Occupation in World War I
, 22.

64. Peter Hoeres, “Die Slawen. Perzeptionen des Kriegsgegners bei den Mittelmächten.

Selbst- und Feindbild,” in
Die vergessene Front: Der Osten 1914/15
, ed. Gerhard P.

Groß (Munich: Schöningh, 2006), 190–199.

65. KA Vienna, NFA, box 305. III AK, 8/-11/14. K. u. k. III Korpskommando, Abferti-

gung, 10/20/14.

66. KA Vienna, NFA, 24/156. 43. Sch.-Div., 2/15–5/17. K. u. k. 43. Sch.-Div. Kommando.

Abfertigung, 1/29/15

67. KA Vienna, NFA, C026/41. 11. Inf.-Div., 5/-9/15. K. u. k. XVII AK. Korpskom-

mando, 8/28/15.

Notes to Pages 43–45
281

68. KA Vienna, NFA, C026/41. AK XVII, 5/15–6/18. K. u. k. 17. Korpskommando.

Abfertigung, 2/12/16.

69. KA Vienna, NFA, C026/41. AK XVII, 5/15–6/18. K. u. K. 17. Korpskommando.

Abfertigung, 4/23/17.

70. On German soldiers’ impressions of Russian primitiveness during World War I, see

Peter Jahn, “Russenfurcht und Antibolschewismus. Zur Entstehung und Wirkung