Religion 101 (3 page)

Mummification

One very important reason for mummification in ancient Egypt was to preserve the physical body (
khat
) long enough for it to be transformed into a spiritual body (
sahu
). However, because the process of mummification was prolonged and expensive, most people in Egypt did not undergo it after death.

The Egyptians began to mummify their dead at least as early as 3400
B.C.
The process, as it developed over the centuries, went like this:

1. The brain was removed with a hook through the nose, after which the inside of the skull was washed.
   
2. Internal organs were removed, and the body was stuffed with spices to preserve it.
   
3. The body was dried for seventy days, using salts to remove moisture.
   
4. Protective husks were placed over the fingers and toes to prevent breakage; then the body was wrapped first in linen strips, then in canvas.
   
5. The mummy was placed in a wooden coffin, which was then encased in a stone sarcophagus.
   

The Pyramids

The pyramids are the most iconic structures associated with ancient Egypt. They are closely bound up with Egyptian veneration of the dead, as well as a demonstration of the awesome power of the ancient pharaohs. The earliest was built between 2630 and 2611
B.C
.; the most famous are those at Giza outside Cairo.

Contrary to popular impression, not all pharaohs were interred in pyramids. Tutankhamun, for example, one of the best-known (to us) pharaohs, was buried in an underground tomb in the Valley of the Kings. However, the sheer scale of the pyramids at Giza makes them impressive tributes to the pharaohs who built them.

The largest of these pyramids, the Great Pyramid of Giza, was probably constructed as a tomb for the pharaoh Khufu (c. 2580
B.C
.), a ruler of the fourth dynasty.

Impressive Statistics

• The Great Pyramid of Giza was the tallest manmade structure in the world for more than 3,800 years.
  
• The pyramid consists of 2.3 million limestone blocks.
  
• The mean opening in the joints between the blocks is 0.5 millimeters.
  
• 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite, and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used to build the Great Pyramid.
  

The Tomb of Tutankhamun

Among the most famous of all Egyptian tombs is that of the pharaoh Tutankhamun (ruled c. 1332–1333
B.C.
). The tomb was discovered on November 4, 1922, by the archeologist Howard Carter and, though this was not known until some years later, was entered the night it was discovered by Carter, his patron Lord Carnarvon, and Carnarvon’s daughter, Evelyn, who examined it and then left, carefully resealing the door. The tomb had, at some point in the far distant past, been opened by robbers, but the thieves had evidently been caught and the tomb resealed. It was in a remarkable state of preservation; Carter found funeral flowers preserved in the still air (though they dissolved when touched) and could see in the dust on the floor the bare footprints of the workmen who had resealed the tomb.

From the contents of the tomb, archeologists were able to learn much about Egyptian funerary customs. Tutankhamun’s body had been placed in a series of coffins, nestled one within the other; one was made of pure gold. The face of the mummy was covered by a golden mask, which became one of the most famous images associated with the pharaoh.

Artifacts preserved from the tomb have toured museums worldwide on several occasions, allowing millions of people to view firsthand this remarkable collection of objects.

THE ROMAN GODS

Borrowing from the Greeks for a Unique Pantheon

Early in Rome’s history, the ancient Romans had a religion that was completely their own. As time passed, however, extensive changes occurred within this religion. As Romans conquered neighboring territories, they absorbed some aspects of local religions, and as Greek literature became known in Rome, it influenced Roman religion. Greek mythology was assimilated into Roman mythology to fill in gaps in the latter; eventually, Romans adopted (and adapted) Greek myths on a broad scale.

Although the Romans borrowed heavily from Greek mythology, they kept their own names for the gods and goddesses. To gain a very basic knowledge of Roman mythology, just examine the Roman and Greek counterparts in the following table. Because Roman myths are so similar to Greek ones, knowing the Roman equivalents of Greek names gives you a head start in understanding Roman mythology.

Unlike the Greeks, Roman religion was a highly political affair — not surprising in the world’s first great political institution, the Roman Empire. Priests were not separated out from the rest of society and positions within the Roman priesthood were often filled by citizens who had formerly been great soldiers or orators.

Pontifices and Augurs

There were two kinds of Roman priests. The
pontifices
(from which word we get the English word
pontiff
) were the leaders of Roman religious organizations. Their duties included regulation of the Roman calendar and the ceremonies worshiping the various gods. There were fifteen pontifices, and their leader, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the Roman religious establishment.

The
augurs
, on the other hand, specialized in divining the will of the gods from elaborate rituals that often (though not always) involved the slaughter of animals. After the sacrifice, having been sprinkled with wine and a sacred cake, was killed, its liver and entrails were examined. From this the augurs could predict the future and, they hoped, gain the favor of the gods. To that end, if any mistake was made in the ritual, the priest had to begin again.

Beginning during the reign of the first emperor, Augustus (63
B.C
.–
A.D
. 14), there grew up a cult of the emperor. After Augustus, all emperors were ritualistically deified and worshiped, and colleges of priests called
augustales
oversaw the worship.

Religion as a Unifier

The Romans administered a vast and diverse empire, one that had begun to grow under the old Republic and reached its zenith under the emperors. In ruling such different peoples with their varied customs, the Romans showed great tolerance of local customs, but they insisted that subjects of the empire recognize the divinity of the emperor. This meant that the cult of the emperor served as a unifying device; it worked particularly well in the eastern regions of the empire, where there was a long tradition of god-kings.

The Divine Origins of Rome

The Romans could not credit the notion that their empire was the result of mere chance. Clearly, the gods must have intended them to emerge as a great power, ruling the Mediterranean world. Various origin stories about Rome grew from legend and myth and were given artistic coherence in the first century
B.C.
by Virgil, greatest of all Roman poets. Virgil composed
The Aeneid
to both link the beginning of the Roman people to the greatest of all ancient legends — the fall of Troy — and to show that the gods themselves had decreed that Rome would emerge as the greatest city in the world.

But next behold the youth of form divine,

Caesar himself, exalted in his line;

Augustus, promis’d oft, and long foretold,

Sent to the realm that Saturn rul’d of old;

Born to restore a better age of gold.

— Virgil
, The Aeneid
(trans. John Dryden)

According to Virgil, Prince Aeneas of Troy escaped the destruction of the city at the hands of the Greeks. Bearing his aged father on his shoulders, and leading his little son by the hand, Aeneas made his way from the burning fortress and, with followers, escaped. They spent many years wandering but finally arrived at the mouth of the Tiber River, when they founded a city, Alba Longa. Aeneas married Lavinia, daughter of the local king, Latinus (from which comes the word
Latin
). Their descendants were the founders of Rome.

A Visit to the Underworld

During his wanderings, Aeneas was permitted by the gods to visit the Underworld. There he encountered not just the spirits of the dead but also beheld those waiting to be born. These included the founder of the city of Rome, Romulus; great generals and kings who would lead the city to glory; and the figure of Augustus himself. This last was a not-so-subtle bit of flattery on the part of Virgil, since the poem was written with Augustus’s patronage.

THE CULT OF MITHRAS

The Worship of the Bull of Heaven

One consequence of the Roman Empire spreading very far afield was that its soldiers picked up a lot of religious customs from the fringes of Europe and Asia and, eventually, transmitted them throughout the empire. The outstanding example of this kind of religious migration was the cult of Mithras, which reached its height in the fourth century
A.D.

Mithras probably started off as a Persian religious figure, though he may also have been worshiped in India under the name Mitra (“the shining one”). He was a sky god, like Zeus and Jupiter, referred to in ancient texts as “the genius of the heavenly light.” He was associated with a pantheon of Persian gods that culminated in the supreme deity Ahura Mazda.

The Mithraic Bull

There are many depictions of Mithras in Roman art, but the dominant motif shows him sacrificing a bull. In the telling of this story, the sacrifice is made to the sun god, Sol. The bull has escaped from a burning stable, and while grazing peacefully, it is attacked by Mithras, who seizes it by the horns, mounts and rides it, and eventually casts over his shoulders. In most depictions of the sacrifice, Mithras wears a Phrygian cap (that is, a cap worn by inhabitants of central Turkey). Mithras is often accompanied in his sacrifice by a youth named Cautes.

The story has its origins in a Persian myth that Ahura Mazda created the bull before all else. The bull was slain by the god of evil, Ahriman, and from the bull’s side came the first man, Gayômort, while from its tail came seeds and plants, from its blood the vine, and from its semen all other beasts.

In some depictions of the sacrifice, once Mithras has slain the bull he and the sun god sit down to a banquet. At its conclusion, Mithras mounts a chariot with the sun god and ascends into the sky. Some scholars see similarities to the story of Christ’s ascension into heaven.

Spread of the Cult

Like the Eleusinian Mysteries, Mithraism was a mystery religion, so it is difficult to say much about its rituals and practices.

Religion 101 Question

What Christian holiday do some scholars argue was actually an appropriation of the date attributed to the birth of Mithras?

December 25, Christmas Day

What we know for certain is that the cult of Mithras spread with great speed and that it was especially popular with Roman soldiers. The remains of Mithraic temples have been found at the sites of a number of Roman military camps.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Creator of Hellenistic Culture

It might seem odd in a book about religion to devote a section to a political and military figure such as Alexander of Macedon. But Alexander’s conquest had profound results for all of Greek and Eastern culture, including religion.