Religion 101 (13 page)

Once interest in questioning had begun, there was no way to stop it. Schools opened all over Europe. They developed a teaching method that incorporated Abelard’s format of posed questions and answers. The method was called “Scholasticism,” which gradually became a means of arriving at difficult conclusions through questions and debate. By arranging information and questioning the details, students would arrive at a logical conclusion.

What’s It Mean?

Less than 100 years after Abelard’s death, schools opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, and Bologna (among many other cities). The Europeans called these schools
universitas
, which is a Latin word that in the Middle Ages meant any corporate group.

By the end of the thirteenth century, the philosophical writings of the ancient Greeks and other nations outside the empire were flooding over the borders of Europe. Many had been translated from Arabic, since Islamic scholars revered the ancient Greek thinkers and preserved many of their works. The writings of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides and the Muslim thinker Averroes were widely circulated.

St. Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican monk and scholar, was called in to examine the texts of Maimonides and Averroes. While he refuted some of their propositions, he reconciled others with Christian thinking in a massive work titled
Summa Theologica
. The book was never finished, but it is regarded by many scholars as the intellectual high point of the Scholastic movement.

PAUL OF TARSUS

The Man Who Made Christianity

It would be impossible to talk about the growth of Christianity without mentioning the apostle Paul, who was not one of the original apostles. In fact, Paul was an outspoken opponent of Jesus’ teachings at first, both during Jesus’ life and after his death. It is a surprise then that Paul became a vigilant missionary after he was strangely blinded on the road to Damascus. According to the Bible, the Holy Spirit visited Paul and returned his sight, which then led him as a new convert to spread the message of Jesus and establish Christianity throughout the world — at least the parts of it he could reach in his lifetime.

Paul became the perfect ambassador for Christianity and was able to bridge the gap between Jews, Romans, and Greeks. He had been raised strictly in Judaism; he spoke fluent Greek; and he was a Roman citizen. He was also educated in Greek literature and thought and could, therefore, express the doctrines and teachings of Jesus to the Gentiles. As a Roman citizen, he had certain freedoms that allowed him to travel and continue the work that Jesus began. Paul managed to bring his message to areas of the world that Jesus never reached, such as Turkey and Greece.

Paul’s Travels

According to the scriptures, Paul made three major trips during his life:

1. Palestine and Antioch (ancient Syria, now Turkey)
   
2. Thessalonica (city in ancient Macedonia)
   
3. Philippi (city in ancient Macedonia) and then on to Corinth and Turkey
   

However, it wasn’t long before authorities caught up to Paul and his continuing Christian teaching. Upon his return to Jerusalem after establishing a church in Ephesus (a city in Turkey), Jewish authorities arrested him, fearing an uprising of Jesus’ followers and the possible undermining of Judaism. Paul appealed his case to Rome, where he spent the rest of his life awaiting trial. In
A.D.
64, Emperor Nero decided to eradicate the Christians from Rome, and Paul was never seen or heard from again.

New Christian Ground

After the fall of Jerusalem to the Romans in about 70, the seat of the Christian faith had to find new ground. By that time, Christianity had gathered thousands of followers and was powerful enough that finding a new home did not take very long. The second home of the faith was Antioch, where Paul had spent a good deal of time preaching.

Letter to the Thessalonians

On his travels, Paul managed to convert many Gentiles to the teachings of Jesus Christ and during his third trip, he wrote his famous Letter to the Thessalonians, which later became a book in the New Testament.

Christianity found its way into India and northern Africa as Paul made his way to Italy and Spain. By the end of the fourth century — 400 years after the birth of Jesus — there were about 500,000 people living in Antioch, and half the population was Christian. By the middle of the third century, there were 30,000 Christians living in Rome.

The New Testament

When Paul got word of newly formed churches that were struggling with certain Christian issues, he wrote many letters to explain the various teachings of Jesus Christ. In an effort to spread the word of God, the Christian leaders often struggled with putting the ideas into effect in a way that everyone could understand. Paul’s letters — combined with the writings of the apostles Peter, James, and John, as well as the books written by Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John (the Gospels) — formed the foundation of the new Christian Bible.

CHAPTER 5
ISLAM

The Muslim community is one of the most diverse in the world, ranging from Chinese rice farmers to Bosnian steelworkers; from Indonesian fishermen to Tuareg nomads. Islam spans nearly every continent and plays a key role in the modern political world. Twenty percent of people on Earth consider themselves Muslim.

Despite their differences in language and culture, Muslims share a common faith that brings them a sense of peace and stability in their individual and community lives. Islam guides every aspect of their day-to-day lives, from their choice of work and leisure activities to the food they eat and the way they interact with other people.

Islam has more in common with other religious faiths than many people realize. Muslims believe in One Almighty God and the guidance that He has sent to prophets. Their holy book, the Qur’an, contains stories of such familiar figures as Noah, Moses, Abraham, and Jesus. They honor universal values such as equality, honesty, mercy, and humility.

Yet in today’s world, Muslims are often associated with extremism and intolerance; their beliefs are misunderstood and even despised. Stereotypes and misinformation are spread out of ignorance or deliberately promoted for political or social purposes. Isolated cases of violence, many times without any religious motive, stand as examples of what is now considered “normal” Muslim behavior.

When exploring any faith, it’s important to look at the totality of its teachings: its basic vocabulary, its holy texts, its prophets, the history of its early faith community, and the interpretations of its modern scholars.

What’s It Mean?

The word
Islam
, at its core, means “peaceful worship of and submission to One Almighty God.” Those who believe in and practice Islam are known as Muslims, or “those who find peace through trusting submission to and worship of God Alone.”

From small and humble beginnings 1,400 years ago, the Muslim community expanded to cover three continents and to lead some of the greatest empires of ancient history. As the foundation for one of the most advanced intellectual and cultural environments of all time, Islam was the embodiment of tolerance, scholarship, and justice. Indeed, it was Muslim leadership that helped to propel Europe out of the Dark Ages and into the modern era. Today, Islam continues to inspire millions of people to lead lives of integrity, innovation, and kindness.

ARTICLES OF FAITH

The Basic Tenets of Islam

Muslims throughout the world share a common set of fundamental beliefs, often described as “articles of faith.” These articles of faith form the foundation of the religion of Islam.

Belief in One God

Muslims believe there is only One Supreme God who creates and controls everything in the universe. In Islam, God is believed to be the Creator, the Sustainer, the Ruler, and the Judge. Muslims further recognize that a person who believes in the Creator comes to love Him, trust in Him, hope from Him, and fear disappointing Him.

The Name of God

Allah
derives from an Arabic word that means “the God.” Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews often use the same name to refer to the Almighty. Muslims see it as the proper name of the One God, as it is the name used in the Qur’an.

Among Muslims,
Allah
is the personal name used for this One Almighty God, a name that is not subject to plurality (“gods”) or gender (“goddess”). Sometimes Allah is referred to as “He,” or may be quoted in the royal sense, “We.” However, in Islam, Allah is beyond all human perception, and is not male, female, dual, or plural. Allah is simply One.

The Attributes of Allah

As God is an unseen being, beyond our limited human perception, it is sometimes difficult for us to imagine His characteristics. The Qur’an offers a description of God by using many different attributes or “names,” which help human beings understand the nature of God. The Qur’an says, for example, that He is the Most Merciful, the Most Gracious, the Beneficent, the All-Knowing, the Loving, the All-Wise, and so on.

How Many Attributes or Names?

Traditionally there are ninety-nine different names that are used to describe God in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Muslims often try to recite the names, reflect upon them, and to understand God better through them.

Allah’s Relationship with People

While Allah remains beyond all human attempts at understanding, Islam also teaches that Allah fully sustains each and every thing and creature on earth, and He reaches out to us in mercy and compassion. Allah knows everything about every grain of sand, every leaf, and the secret whisperings of each person’s heart. One does not need any special devices or intermediaries to reach out directly to Allah.

Muslims believe that Allah created unseen beings, including angels and
jinn
. Angels were created out of light, and they work tirelessly to administer Allah’s kingdom. Without a free will of their own, these spiritual creatures carry out Allah’s orders in full obedience.

What’s It Mean?

The Arabic word for
angels
is
mala’ika
, which comes from the Arabic root meaning “to help and assist,” or “gathering, assembly.” According to the teachings of Islam, angels give full service and devotion to God, without any hint of disobedience.

The angels surround us at all times, and they have a multitude of duties and tasks. There are angels who record our words and deeds, and those who guard the gates of Heaven and Hell.

The Jinn

Unlike the angels,
jinn
are unseen creatures that were created from fire. They have a free will to either obey or disobey Allah, and they will be rewarded or punished on Judgment Day just as human beings will. Muslims believe that
jinn
freely roam the earth and are capable of doing good or harm.

Religion 101 Question

Do Muslims believe in Satan?

Since angels do not have a free will, there is no concept in Islam of a “fallen angel.” Muslims believe that Satan (called
Shaytan
or
Iblis
in the Qur’an) is a
jinn
who strives to lead human beings astray.

Belief in the Prophets of God

Muslims believe that it is through Allah’s grace and benevolence that He sent prophets and messengers to every nation, in order to guide people to the straight path. Each prophet had different strengths and was born in a different time, place, and culture. However, the prophets’ message has always been the same: calling people to worship the One Supreme God and to obey His commandments.

The Qur’an mentions by name nearly thirty different biblical prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Jonah, Moses, Aaron, David, Solomon, and Jesus. Muslims honor and revere all of the prophets, understanding that in their own time and place they were exemplary servants of God.

Muhammad, the Last Prophet

As God continued to send prophets to guide His people, they were rejected by their people, and their messages were either distorted or lost. Then Allah would send another prophet to renew and repeat the message of guidance. Muslims believe that after Muhammad, there was no need for Allah to send another prophet, because he left behind the protected scripture of the Qur’an to remain as a guide for mankind.

Muslims believe in the revelation of five divine books:

• Suhuf
  (Scrolls), revealed to Abraham
  
• Zabur
  (Psalms), revealed to David
  
• Tawrah
  (Torah), revealed to Moses
  
• Injeel
  (Gospels), revealed to Jesus
  
• Qur’an, revealed to Muhammad
  

Muslims believe these original messages had many teachings in common with Islam at the time they were revealed, although some specific guidance was directed to the communities that received the revelation. Over time, however, the original teachings of these books became distorted or lost, and it was necessary for God to send another message to set the record straight and confirm His teachings. Muslims believe the Qur’an was the final revelation God sent to mankind.

Day of Judgment

Muslims believe that the life of this world and all that is in it will come to an end on one appointed day called
Youm al-Qiyama
, or the Day of Reckoning. At this time, Allah will judge each person individually, according to his or her faith and the balance of his or her good and bad actions.

Belief in Destiny and Divine Decree