Pushout (37 page)

15
. Brandi Simonsen, Lucille Eber, Anne Black, George Sugai, Holly Lewandowski, Barbara Sims, and Diane Myers, “Illinois Statewide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: Evolution and Impact on Student Outcomes Across Years,”
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions
14, no. 1 (2012): 5–16.

16
. Ibid.

17
. Muscott, Mann, and LeBrun, “Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports in New Hampshire,” 202.

18
. Kristine Jolivette, Sara C. McDaniel, Jeffrey Sprague, Jessica Swain-Bradway, and Robin Parks Ennis, “Embedding the Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports Framework into the Complex Array of Practices Within Alternative Education Settings: A Decision-Making Process,”
Assessment for Effective Intervention
38, no. 1 (2012): 15.

19
. Nicole Cain Swoszowski, Kristine Jolivette, L.D. Fredrick, and Laura J. Heflin, “Check In/Check Out: Effects on Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders with Attention- or Escape-Maintained Behavior in a Residential Facility,”
Exceptionality
20, no. 3 (2012): 163–78.

20
. Jolivette et al., “Embedding the Positive Behavioral Interventions.”

21
. Katrina Debnam, Elise Pas, and Catherine Bradshaw, “Secondary and Tertiary Support Systems in Schools Implementing School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: A Preliminary Descriptive Analysis,”
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions
14, no. 3 (2012): 142–52.

22
. Jessica Feierman, Rachel Kleinman, David Lapp, Monique Luse, Len Reiser, and Robert Schwartz, “Stemming the Tide: Promising Legislation to Reduce School Referrals to the Courts,”
Family Court Review
51, no. 3 (2013): 409–17.

23
. Margaret Shippen, DaShaunda Patterson, Kemeche Green, and Tracy Smitherman, “Community and School Practices to Reduce Delinquent Behavior:
Intervening on the School-to-Prison Pipeline,”
Teacher Education and Special Education
35, no. 4 (2012): 296–308.

24
. Howard Zehr,
Changing Lenses: A New Focus for Crime and Justice
(Scottsdale, PA: Herald Press, 1990).

25
. Ada Pecos Melton, “Traditional and Contemporary Tribal Justice,” in
Images of Color, Images of Crime
, ed. Coramae Richey Mann and Marjorie S. Zatz (Los Angeles: Roxubry, 1998), 58–71; John Braithwaite,
Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation
(London: Oxford University Press, 2002).

26
. Thalia González, “Keeping Kids in Schools: Restorative Justice, Punitive Discipline, and the School to Prison Pipeline,”
Journal of Law and Education
41, no. 2 (2012): 281–335. See also Michael Sumner, Carol Silverman, and Mary Louise Frampton,
School-Based Restorative Justice as an Alternative to Zero-Tolerance Policies: Lessons from West Oakland
(Berkeley: Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice, University of California, Berkeley School of Law, 2010).

27
. Howard Zehr,
The Little Book of Restorative Justice
(Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 2002), 33.

28
. Ibid., 21.

29
. Ibid.

30
. Melton, “Traditional and Contemporary Tribal Justice,” 66.

31
. Edgar Cahn, Kerri Nash, and Cynthia Robbins, “A Strategy for Dismantling Structural Racism in the Juvenile Delinquency System,”
Poverty and Race
20, no. 2 (2011): 1–8; William Bradshaw and David Roseborough, “Restorative Justice Dialogue: The Impact of Mediation and Conferencing on Juvenile Recidivism,”
Federal Probation
69, no. 2 (2005): 15–21; Sarah Sun Beale, “Still Tough on Crime? Prospects for Restorative Justice in the United States,”
Utah Law Review
1 (2003): 413–37. See also Carol Chmelynski, “Restorative Justice for Discipline with Respect,”
Education Digest
, September 2005; and Wendy Drewery, “Conferencing in Schools: Punishment, Restorative Justice, and the Productive Importance of the Process of Conversation,”
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
14 (2004): 332–44.

32
. Mary Louise Frampton, “Transformative Justice and the Dismantling of Slavery's Legacy in Post-modern America,” in
After the War on Crime
, ed. Mary Louise Frampton, Ian Haney López, and Jonathan Simon (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 216.

33
. Zehr,
Little Book of Restorative Justice
, 42.

34
. Chmelynski, “Restorative Justice for Discipline with Respect,” 2005.

35
.
Jessica Ashley and Kimberly Burke,
Implementing Restorative Justice: A Guide for Schools
(Chicago: Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority, 2009).

36
. Ted Wachtel and Laura Mirsky, L,
Safer, Saner Schools: Restorative Practices in Education, Restoring a Culture of Community in Learning Environments
(Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices, 2008).

37
. Russell Fazio and Michael Olson, “Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research: Their Meanings and Use,”
Annual Review of Psychology
54 (2003): 297–303. See also Justin Levinson, “Forgotten Racial Inequality: Implicit Bias, Decision-making and Misremembering,”
Duke Law Journal
57 (2007): 345–421.

38
. Anthony G. Greenwald and Linda Hamilton Krieger, “Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations,”
California Law Review
94 (2006): 945–67.

39
. Kelly Welch and Allison A. Payne, “Exclusionary School Punishment: The Effect of Racial Threat on Expulsion and Suspension,”
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
10, no. 20 (2012): 155–71. See also Lionel Brown and Kelvin Beckett, “The Role of the School District in Student Discipline: Building Consensus in Cincinnati,”
Urban Review
38 (2006): 235–56.

40
. Welch and Payne, “Exclusionary School Punishment.”

41
. Daniel Losen, Tia Martinez, and Jon Gillespie,
Suspended Education in California
(Los Angeles, CA: Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the University of California, Los Angeles Civil Rights Project, 2012), 39.

42
. González, “Keeping Kids in Schools,” 2012. See also Sumner et al.,
School-Based Restorative Justice
.

43
. Welch and Payne, “Exclusionary School Punishment.”

44
. Ashley and Burke,
Implementing Restorative Justice
; Wachtel and Mirsky,
Safer, Saner Schools
, 182. See also Bob Costello, Joshua Wachtel, and Ted Wachtel,
The Restorative Practices Handbook for Teachers, Disciplinarians, and Administrators
(Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices, 2009.

45
. Costello et al.,
Restorative Practices Handbook
.

46
. Ibid., 50.

47
. Ibid., 51.

48
. Advancement Project,
Test, Punish, and Push Out: How “Zero Tolerance” and High-Stakes Testing Funnel Youth into the School-to-Prison Pipeline
(Washington, DC: Advancement Project, 2010). See also American Psychological Association Task Force, “Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in Schools?,”
American Psychologist
63, no. 9 (2008), 852–62; Costello et al.,
Restorative Practices Handbook
.

49
.
Monique W. Morris,
Race, Gender, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls
(Los Angeles: African American Policy Forum, 2012).

50
. Leticia Smith-Evans, Janel George, Fatima Goss-Graves, Lara Kaufmann, and Lauren Frohlich.
Unlocking Opportunities for African American Girls: A Call to Action for Educational Equity
(New York: NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, 2014).

51
. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Trends in Teen Pregnancy and Childbearing Teen Births
(Washington, DC: DHHS, 2015),
http://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-health-topics/reproductive-health/teen-pregnancy/trends.html
.

52
. Emily Gaarder and Denise Hesselton, “Connecting Restorative Justice with Gender-Responsive Programming,”
Contemporary Justice Review: Issues in Criminal, Social, and Restorative Justice
15, no. 3 (2012): 239–64.

53
. Ibid., 249.

54
. Nancy Rodriguez, “Restorative Justice at Work: Examining the Impact of Restorative Justice Resolutions on Juvenile Recidivism,”
Crime and Delinquency
53, no. 3 (2007): 355–79.

55
. Gaarder and Hesselton, “Connecting Restorative Justice with Gender-Responsive Programming,” 254.

56
. Rebecca Hubbard Maniglia, “Translating Gender Theory into Juvenile Justice Practice for Girls” (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2007).

57
. Gaarder and Hesselton, “Connecting Restorative Justice with Gender-Responsive Programming.”

58
. Ibid., 258.

59
. Ibid., 260.

60
. Ibid., 257.

61
. Beale, “Still Tough on Crime?” See also Bradshaw and Roseborough, “Restorative Justice Dialogue.”

62
. Gillean McCluskey, Gwynedd Lloyd, Jean Kane, Sheila Riddell, Joan Stead, and Elisabet Weedon, “Can Restorative Practices in Schools Make a Difference?,”
Educational Review
60, no. 4 (2008): 405–17.

63
. Heather Cole and Julian Vasquez Heilig, “Developing a School-Based Youth Court: A Potential Alternative to the School to Prison Pipeline,”
Journal of Law and Education
40, no. 2 (2011): 305–21.

64
. Zehr,
Little Book of Restorative Justice
, 2002.

65
.
David Karp and Todd Clear, eds.,
What Is Community Justice?
(London: Sage Publications, 2002). See also Jodi Lane, Amber Schroeder, Susan Turner, and Terri Fain,
South Oxnard Challenge Project
(Santa Barbara, CA: RAND, 2002). Also Paul Takagi and Gregory Shank, “Social Justice for Workers in the Global Economy,”
Social Justice
31, no. 3 (2004): 147–63.

66
. Restorative Justice for Oakland Youth, “About,” Oakland, CA,
http://www.rjoyoakland.org/about.php
.

67
. Frampton,
Transformative Justice
.

68
. Lode Walgrave, ed.,
Restorative Justice for Juveniles: Potentialities, Risks, and Problems
(Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1998).

69
. Howard Zehr, “Restorative Justice: The Concept,”
Corrections Today
59, no. 7 (1997): 68–70.

Methodology

1
. Linda Dale Bloomberg and Marie Volpe,
Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Roadmap from Beginning to End
(Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2008).

2
. Clark Moustakas,
Phenomenological Research Methods
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1994).

3
. Steinar Kvale,
Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996). See also Sharan B. Merriam,
Qualitative Research and Case Study Application in Education
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998). Lastly, see Irving E. Seidman,
Interviewing as Qualitative Research
, 2nd ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998).

4
. John Creswell,
Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches,
2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003.

5
. Marcia S. Wertz, Marcianna Nosek, Susan McNiesh, and Elizabeth Marlow, “The Composite First Person Narrative: Texture, Structure, and Meaning in Writing Phenomenological Descriptions,”
International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Health and Wellbeing
6, no. 2 (2011).

6
. County Probation Department aggregate summary of youth admitted/released to secure detention in January 2013 and March 2013. Data on file with author.

7
. Joseph Betancourt, Alexander Green, J. Emilio Carrillo, and Owusu Ananeh-Firempong, “Defining Cultural Competence: A Practice Framework for
Addressing Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health and Health Care,”
Public Health Reports
118 (July–August 2003): 294.

8
. See Isami Arifuku, Monique Morris, Michelle Nuñez, and Mary Lai, “Culture Counts: How Five Community-Based Organizations Serve Asian and Pacific Islander Youth,” National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 2003.

9
. Stephanie Covington and Barbara Bloom, “Gendered Justice: Programming for Women in Correctional Settings,” paper presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, San Francisco, CA, November 2000, 12.

10
. Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen, Stephanie Covington, and Myrna Raeder,
Gender Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders
(Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections, 2003), vii.

11
. Meda Chesney-Lind, Merry Morash, and Katherine Irwin, “Policing Girlhood: Relational Aggression and Violence Prevention,” in
Fighting for Girls: New Perspectives on Gender and Violence
, ed. Meda Chesney-Lind and Nikki Jones (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010). See also Norine Johnson, Michael Roberts, and Judith Worell,
Beyond Appearance: A New Look at Adolescent Girls
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1999).

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Monique W. Morris, EdD, has been working in the areas of education, civil rights, and social justice for more than twenty years. She writes and lectures widely on the research, policies, and practices associated with improving juvenile justice and educational conditions for Black girls, women, and their families. She is a co-founder of the National Black Women's Justice Institute and a 2012 Soros Justice Fellow, and she formerly served as Vice President for Economic Programs, Advocacy and Research at the NAACP and as Director of Research for the Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice at the UC Berkeley School of Law.

Morris sits on the National Girls Initiative Expert Panel and on California's Board of State and Community Corrections' Reducing Racial and Ethnic Disparities Subcommittee. She is also an advisory board member for Global Girl Media, Oakland, and a regular contributor to
Ebony.com
. She is the author of
Black Stats: African Americans by the Numbers in the Twenty-First Century
(The New Press), and her debut novel,
Too Beautiful for Words
(MWM Books), is a favorite among girls in detention facilities and marginalized youth across the country. She lives in the Bay Area with her husband and two daughters.