Pox (67 page)

32
“A Tempest in Rochester: Frightened Parents Refuse to Allow School Children to Be Vaccinated,”
NYTRIB
, Nov. 20, 1901, 6.

33
“No Vaccination in Camden's Boundaries.” “Resolutions of the Camden Board of Health,”
MN
, Nov. 23, 1901, 828. “Lockjaw Checks All Vaccination,”
PNA
, Nov. 19, 1901, 3.

34
See Louis Galambos with Jane Eliot Sewell,
Networks of Innovation: Vaccine Development at Merck, Sharp & Dohme, and Mulford, 1895–1995
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Liebenau,
Medical Science and Medical Industry
; John P. Swann,
Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in Twentieth-Century America
(Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).

35
For a lucid short discussion, see Ian Glynn and Jenifer Glynn,
The Life and Death of Smallpox,
177–89.

36
NCBOH 1897–98
, 35. Chapin,
Municipal Sanitation
, 580. Donald R. Hopkins,
Princes and Peasants,
77–81. Fenner et al.,
Smallpox and Its Eradication,
263.

37
George Henry Fox,
A Practical Treatise on Smallpox,
26. Herbert Spencer,
Facts and Comments
(New York: D.Appleton and Co., 1902), 271, 107.
USROSENAU
, 6. Hopkins,
Princes and Peasants
, 85. The persistent association of vaccination with syphilis persisted long after the curtailment of the arm-to-arm method ended the problem. See, e.g., Sylvanus Stall,
What a Young Man Ought to Know
, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: Vir Publishing Company, 1904), 142.

38
Francis G. Martin, “The Propagation, Preservation, and Use of Vaccine Virus,” address to the American Medical Association, May 7, 1896, in
IBOH 1897
, 169.

39
Samuel W. Abbott, “Vaccination,” in
A Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences
, rev. ed. by Albert H. Buck, vol. 8 (New York: William Wood and Company, 1904), 111–53, esp. 133–34.

40
Abbott, “Vaccination,” 133–34.

41
Martin ad in
BMSJ
, unpaginated advertising sheet, Aug. 29, 1872. “A Vaccination Farm,”
Arkansas Gazette
, Sept. 25, 1877. “Animal Vaccination: Dr. Martin's Vaccine Farm at Brookline, Mass.,”
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper
(New York), Aug. 6, 1881, 382.

42
“Virus: The Difference Between Humanized and Animal Matter—Rearing Calves for Purposes of Vaccination,”
St. Louis Globe-Democrat
[orig. from
Brooklyn Eagle
], Jan. 6, 1876, 3. John Duffy,
A History of Public Health in New York City, 1866–1966,
151. Massachusetts enacted the nation's first compulsory education law in 1852 and its first compulsory vaccination law in 1855. By 1918, every state had compulsory education. Compulsory vaccination spread far less uniformly, with many state legislatures leaving the matter to local communities and their boards of health.

43
J. W. Compton & Son advertisement,
Transactions of the Indiana State Medical Society
, 1882 (Indianapolis, 1882), 331. Wyeth advertisement,
Drugs and Medicines of North America
(Cincinnati, 1884–1885), Vol. 1: 21. “A Vaccination Farm,”
Arkansas Gazette
, Sept. 25, 1877. “Animal Vaccination,” 382. Oscar C. DeWolf, “Remarks on Sources and Varieties of Vaccine Virus,”
Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner
, 42 (1881): 481–86. J. W. Hodge, “What Is the Stuff Variously Termed ‘Vaccine Virus,' ‘Bovine Virus,' ‘Animal Lymph,' ‘Calf Lymph,' ‘Pure Calf-Lymph,' Etc.,”
Medical Advance
, March 1908, 160–71, esp. 168.

44
More recently DNA analysis has confirmed that vaccinia, cowpox, and smallpox are distinct. See Glynn and Glynn,
The Life and Death of Smallpox,
177–89.

45
Walter Reed, “What Credence Should Be Given to the Statements of Those Who Claim to Furnish Vaccine Lymph Free of Bacteria,”
Journal of Practical Medicine
, 5 (July 1895), 532–34. W. F. Elgin, “The Propagation of Vaccine and Glycerinated Lymph,”
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America
, Atlantic City, June 1–2, 1900 (Providence, 1900), 51.

46
R. L. Pitfield, “Report on the Vaccine Farms and Antitoxin Propagating Establishments of the United States, and Their Products, and on Certain Imported Antitoxins,”
Twelfth Annual Report of the State Board of Health and Vital Statistics of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
(1896) vol. 1 (State Printer, 1897), 186, 193, 196, 154.

47
Abbott, “Vaccination,” 142.
USROSENAU
, 6. Glynn and Glynn,
Life and Death of Smallpox
, 172–73. J. J. Kinyoun, “The Action of Glycerin on Bacteria in the Presence of Cell Exudates,”
Journal of Experimental Medicine
, 7 (1905): 725–32.

48
Mulford Company display advertisements,
Medical World
, 19 (December 1901), 17. On the connection between cities and hinterlands in the late nineteenth century, see William Cronon,
Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West
(New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1991).

49
Richard Hofstadter wrote, “The United States was born in the country and has moved to the city.”
The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F. D. R.
(New York: Random House, 1955), 23. Liebenau,
Medical Science and Medical Industry
, 57–78; Galambos with Sewell,
Networks of Innovation
, 9–32. Curiously, the latter work does not mention the Camden episode.

50
Mulford display advertisement,
Medical Dial
, 2 (Apr. 1900), xii. Galambos with Sewell,
Networks of Innovation
, 9–32.

51
Mulford display advertisement,
Medical Dial
, 2 (Apr. 1900), xii.

52
Elgin, “Propagation of Vaccine,” 46–55. See also, “How Mulford's Vaccine Is Made,” display advertisement,
ILLMJ
, 51 (May 1902), pages not numbered. To compare Mulford's production practices with those of other makers, see esp. Abbott, “Vaccination,” 138–44; Chapin,
Municipal Sanitation
, 584; Francis C. Martin, “The Propagation, Preservation, and Use of Vaccine Virus,”
MR
, 49 (May 30, 1896), 757–59; “The Public Health Laboratories of New York City and Their Products,”
New York State Journal of Medicine
, 2 (Feb. 1902): 37; Theobald Smith, “The Preparation of Animal Vaccine,”
MC
, Jan. 1, 1902, 101–16; “Virus and Antitoxin of the Health Board,”
NYT
, Nov. 24, 1901, 5. On Canadian practices, see Pierrick Malissard, “ ‘Pharming' à l'ancienne: les Fermes Vaccinales Canadiennes,”
Canadian Historical Review
, 85 (2004): 35–62. See “Vaccine Calves on Market,”
CT
, Mar. 3, 1901, 14.

53
Chapin,
Municipal Sanitation
, 580–84. Abbott, “Vaccination,” 138, 147–49.

54
John Duffy,
A History of Public Health in New York City 1866–1966,
242.

55
W. B. Clarke, “The Pot Calls the Kettle Black,”
American Homeopathist
, 26 (May 1900), 159, 160. Otis Clapp & Son display advertisement,
New England Medical Gazette
, Dec. 1897, unnumbered page in advertising section. Parke, Davis & Company display advertisement,
ILLMJ,
51 (Feb. 1902), unpaginated advertising page.

56
John Anderson,
Art Held Hostage: The Battle over the Barnes Collection
(New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2003), 7–30. Richard J. Wattenmaker, “Dr. Albert C. Barnes and the Barnes Foundation,” in
Great French Paintings from the Barnes Foundation: Impressionist, Post-impressionist, and Early Modern
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 3–27.

57
“Lockjaw in Camden,”
NYTRIB
, Nov. 21, 1901, 8. “Virus Did Not Cause Lockjaw,” ibid., Nov. 20, 1901, 6. “Smallpox Virus Was Pure,”
NYS
, Nov. 20, 1901, 5. “Vaccination and Lockjaw,” ibid., Nov. 21, 1901, 6. See also, Albert C. Barnes, “Facts About the Camden Cases of Tetanus,” letter to the editor,
NYT
, Nov. 21, 1901.

58
“Camden Board of Health Report,” 112–18, esp. 113. “No Lockjaw Germs in Virus,”
WP
, Dec. 1, 1901, 24.

59
“The Tetanus Cases in Camden and St. Louis,”
ADPR
, Nov. 25, 1901, 310.

60
“Vaccine and Antitoxin,”
NYT
, Dec. 8, 1901, 6. “The Tetanus Problem,”
PNA
, Nov. 30, 1901, 8. “Smallpox: Vaccination and Tetanus,”
Current Literature
, 32 (April 1902), 486. W. R. Inge Dalton, “Responsibility for the Recent Deaths from the Use of Impure Antitoxins and Vaccine Virus,”
Canadian Journal of Medicine and Surgery
, 11 (Jan. 1902), 35.

61
Robert N. Willson, “Tetanus Appearing in the Course of Vaccinia; Report of a Case,”
Proceedings of the Philadelphia County Medical Society
, 22 (Nov. 1901), 353–66, esp. 364. “Discussion,” ibid., 367–69, esp. 367.

62
“Three Children Expire from the Disease After Vaccination,”
NYTRIB
, Nov. 27, 1901, 14; “Another Case of Tetanus,” ibid., Dec. 5, 1901, 6. “More Deaths from Tetanus: Poisoned Vaccine Still Proving Fatal at Camden, N.J.,”
Omaha World-Herald
, Nov. 27, 1901, 1. “More Deaths from Lockjaw,”
Medical News
, Dec. 7, 1901, 909. “Another Tetanus Victim Succumbs,”
Philadelphia Inquirer
, Dec. 8, 1901, 7.
Twelfth Census of the United States
(1900): Schedule No. 1—Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 67 (Overby); ibid., Enumeration District No. 73 (Rosevelt). Neither Heath nor Johnson was recorded in the 1900 census in Camden County. “Camden Board of Health Report,” 115.

63
“Vaccine and Antitoxin,”
NYT
, Dec. 8, 1901, 4. “A Medical Inquiry as to Vaccine and Antitoxin,” ibid., Dec. 28, 1901, 6.

64
Arthur Van Harlingen, “Remarks on Vaccination in Relation to Skin Diseases and Eruptions Following Vaccination,”
PMJ
, 9 (Jan. 25, 1902), 184–86, esp. 186. John H. McCollom, “Vaccination: Accidents and Untoward Effects,”
MC
, Jan. 1, 1902, 125–38.

65
NCBOH 1897–98
, 37-38. F. T. Campbell, “Vaccination,”
PMJ
, 9 (Apr. 12, 1902): 668. See also
CAMBOH 1902
, 8.

66
M. J. Rosenau, “Report on the examination of dried lymph and glycerinized vaccine lymph,” enclosed with Walter Wyman to C. P. Wertenbaker, Apr. 6, 1900, CPWL, vol. 1. “Dr. Rosenau Dies,”
NYT
, Apr. 10, 1946, 25. “Milton J. Rosenau, M. D.,”
MMWR Weekly
, Oct. 15, 1999, 907.

67
Milton J. Rosenau, “Dry Points Versus Glycerinated Virus, From a Bacteriologic Standpoint,”
USSGPHMHS 1902
, 446–49, esp. 449. “New York Academy of Medicine,”
Pediatrics
, 13 (May 1, 1902): 344–49.

68
Rosenau, “Dry Points Versus Glycerinated Virus,” 446. “Society Proceedings: New York Academy of Medicine,”
MN
, 80 (Mar. 22, 1902), 562ff. Rosenau published his full report in March 1903,
USROSENAU
. “Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America,”
MR
, Nov. 15, 1902, 789.

69
Cleveland Medical Journal
quoted in “Vaccine Lymph,”
Sanitarian
, March 1902. Ibid., 240, 239. “This state of affairs is causing profound disquietude among conscientious medical practitioners.” “Commercial Virus and Antitoxin,”
NYT
, Nov. 18, 1901, 6.

70
John W. LeSeur, “Vaccination, A Privilege or a Duty?” in
Transactions of the Homeopathic Medical Society of the State of New York for the Year 1902
, vol. 37 (Rochester, 1902), 52.

71
Theobald Smith, “The Preparation of Animal Vaccine,” in
MC
, Jan. 1, 1902, 114–15.

72
Dalton, “Responsibility for the Recent Deaths,” 35. On decommodification, see Daniel T. Rodgers,
Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998); Amy Dru Stanley,
From Bondage to Contract: Wage Labor, Marriage, and the Market in the Age of Slave Emancipation
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 267–68.

73
Eugene A. Darling, “Vaccination: The Technique,”
MC
, Jan. 1, 1902, 118. Ann Bowman Jannetta, “Public Health and the Diffusion of Vaccination in Japan,” in
Asian Population History
, ed. Ts'uijung Liu, et al. (New York, 2001), 292–305. “Hearing Over,”
BG
, Feb. 5, 1902, 4. “Death from Lockjaw,”
CC
, Jan. 4, 1902, 5. R. E. Doolittle, “Inspection of Imported Food and Drug Products,”
Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1910
(Washington, 1911), 201.

74
“Regulation of Serum” [from
American Medicine
],
WP
, Dec. 25, 1901, 11. “Should Cities Go into the Drug Business?”
St. Louis Medical and Surgical Reporter
, 74 (March 1898), 152. “Vaccine Makers Protest,”
WP
, Mar. 16, 1900, 5. “On Government Competition,”
ADPR
, Oct. 14, 1901, 218. W. R. Inge Dalton, “Municipal Socialism of a Dangerous Kind,” letter to the editor,
NYT
, Nov. 18, 1901, 5. Daniel DeLeon, “Hiding Their Own Crimes,”
Daily People
, Nov. 19, 1901,
http://www.slp.org/pdf/de_leon/eds1901/nov19_1901.pdf
, accessed Feb. 23, 2009. Practical considerations also worked against manufacture by state and local health boards. In many states, the limited demand for the product during long periods when smallpox was not prevalent could not justify the cost of maintaining a state farm. The southern states had virtually no vaccine production facilities, either state or commercial; even in states with relatively strong health boards, such as Kentucky and North Carolina, officials were content to recommend vaccines manufactured in the Northeast or Middle West. See Gardner T. Swarts, “Is It Advisable for a State to Provide Vaccine Virus,” in
PABOH 1900
, 467–68.