19 . Thomas Spear, “Neo-Traditionalism and the Limits of Invention in British Colonial Africa,”Journal of African History 44, no. 1 (2003): 3â27; Emily Lynn Osborn, “âCircle of Iron': African Colonial Employees and the Interpretation of Colonial Rule in French West Africa,”Journal of African History 44 (2003): 29â50; Fields,Revival and Rebellion , pp. 31, 38; Berry,No Condition Is Permanent , p. 32.
20 . See Martin Chanock, “Paradigms, Policies and Property: A Review of the Customary Law of Land Tenure,” in Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts, eds.,Law in Colonial Africa (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1991).
21 . Cohen, “French Colonial Service,” p. 500; Michael Crowder, “The White Chiefs of Tropical Africa,” in Lewis H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds.,Colonialism in Africa, 1870â1960. Vol. 2:The History and Politics of Colonialism 1914â1960 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 320.
22 . Crowder, “White Chiefs of Tropical Africa,” p. 344.
23 . Suret-Canale,French Colonialism , pp. 71â83. A number of communities in Senegal did in fact win French citizenship.
24 . James C. Scott,Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), chap. 9.
25 . Suret-Canale,French Colonialism , pp. 313â14.
26 . Ibid., p. 371; Cohen, “French Colonial Service,” pp. 492, 497.
27 . See Fukuyama,Origins of Political Order , chap. 3.
28 . Quoted in Abernethy,Dynamics of Global Dominance , p. 120.
29 . Melissa Thomas, “Hard Choices: Why U.S. Policies Towards Poor Governments Fail” (unpublished manuscript), chap. 6.
30 . Collier and Rohner, “Beyond Greed and Grievance.”
31 . Matthew Lange,Lineages of Despotism and Development: British Colonialism and State Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), pp. 96â100; Gberie,A Dirty War in West Africa , pp. 17â38. It was Sierra Leone's misfortune that its diamonds were, unlike those of Botswana, alluvial, which made them relatively easy for individuals to mine. Siaka Stevens's early political career was built around his championing of poor miners against the state-controlled mining industry, which weakened the state's overall ability to control trade in diamonds.
32 . Gberie,A Dirty War in West Africa, p. 196.
21: INSTITUTIONS, DOMESTIC OR IMPORTED
  1 . There is a huge literature on the subject of peacekeeping and postconflict interventions. See James Dobbins et al.,America's Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corp., 2003); Simon Chesterman,You, the People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration, and State-Building (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); World Bank,World Development Report 2011 .
  2 . See Fukuyama,America at the Crossroads ; and Fukuyama, ed.,Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).
  3 . James Dobbins et al.,The UN's Role in Nation-Building: From the Congo to Iraq (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corp., 2005). See Michael Maren,The Road to Hell: The Ravaging Effects of Foreign Aid and International Charity (New York: Free Press, 1997), for how humanitarian assistance to Somalia benefited the Siad Barre government. In the case of eastern Congo, the charge is made that UN refugee camps were sheltering Rwandan Hutugénocidaires until they were broken up by invading Rwandan forces.
  4 . See Fukuyama,Origins of Political Order , p. 14.
  5 . Pritchett, Woolcock, and Andrews,Capability Traps?
  6 . Thomas, “Hard Choices”; Merilee S. Grindle, “Good Enough Governance: Poverty Reduction and Reform in Developing Countries,”Governance 17, no. 4 (2004): 525â48.
  7 . On the origins of community-driven development, see Mallaby,The World's Banker , pp. 202â206.
  8 . Jean Ensminger, “Inside Corruption Networks: Community Driven Development in the Village” (unpublished paper, May 2012).
  9 . Reo Matsuzaki, “Why Accountable Agents Are More Likely to Fail: Explaining Variation in State-Building Outcomes across Colonial Taiwan and the Philippines” (unpublished paper); Paul D. Hutchcroft, “Colonial Masters, National Politicos, and Provincial Lords: Central Authority and Local Autonomy in the American Philippines, 1900â1913,”Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 2 (2000): 277â306.
22: LINGUA FRANCAS
  1 . Some historians talk about the existence of states and kingdoms in the western and eastern halves of southern Nigeria, but few of these polities rose past the level of chiefdoms to become true states. The dominant form of social organization remained tribal. There had been some unification of Yoruba-speaking peoples under the kingdoms of Oyo, centered on the city of Ife, and Benin near the Niger River delta (not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin). But these had begun to break down in internecine warfare by the time the British arrived in force late in the nineteenth century. Northern Nigeria had larger political structures, primarily due to the influence of Islam as an organizing ideology. The North had long been linked to the Middle East through trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to the conversion of the Hausa polities and Borno to Islam late in the eleventh century. The Caliphate of Sokoto was formed early in the nineteenth century when the Fulani people under a charismatic leader named Usman dan Fodio launched a jihad and conquered the Hausa dynasties. As Atul Kohli has pointed out, even though the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest political units in West Africa, it remained far less developed than states in other parts of the world. It had no centralized army or bureaucracy and could not enforce its writ over a clearly defined territory. It was more properly a chiefdom or center of a large tribal confederation than a state. See Falola and Heaton,A History of Nigeria , pp. 23, 29â34, 62â73; Atul Kohli,State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 297.
  2 . Osaghae,Crippled Giant , pp. 1â4.
  3 . Sunil Khilnani,The Idea of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998).
  4 . Kohli,State-Directed Development , pp. 313, 318.
  5 . For an overview, see Osaghae,Crippled Giant , pp. 54â69.
  6 . Robert E. Elson,The Idea of Indonesia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 1â4.
  7 . Jean Gelman Taylor,Indonesia: Peoples and Histories (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 238â39.
  8 . Elson,Idea of Indonesia , pp. 64â65.
  9 . Soekarno,Nationalism, Islam, and Marxism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1969); Bernhard Dahm,Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969), pp. 340â41.
10 . Dahm,Sukarno , pp. 336â43; Eka Darmaputera,Pancasila and the Search for Identity and Modernity in Indonesian Society (New York: E. J. Brill, 1988), pp. 147â64.
11 . Dahm,Sukarno , pp. 331â35.
12 . Taylor,Indonesia , pp. 356â60; John Hughes,Indonesian Upheaval (New York: David McKay, 1967).
13 . Benjamin Fleming Intan,“Public Religion” and the Pancasila-Based State of Indonesia (New York: Peter Lang, 2006), pp. 50â68.
14 . Taufik Abdullah,Indonesia: Towards Democracy (Singapore: ISEAS, 2009), pp. 215, 434; Elson,Idea of Indonesia , p. 65.
15 . On the struggles to integrate places like Ambon, Aceh, and Sulawesi in the 1950s, see Abdullah,Indonesia , pp. 221â40.
16 . Taylor,Indonesia , pp. 350â52; Elson,Idea of Indonesia , p. 69; see Dahm,Sukarno , p. 179, who describes Sukarno's desolation when exiled to the eastern island of Flores in 1934.
17 . On postauthoritarian Indonesia, see Donald K. Emmerson, “Indonesia's Approaching Elections: A Year of Voting Dangerously?”Journal of Democracy 15, no. 1 (2004): 94â108, and “Southeast Asia: Minding the Gap Between Democracy and Governance,”Journal of Democracy 23, no. 2 (2012): 62â73.
18 . Joel D. Barkan, ed.,Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), p. xiii.
19 . Joel D. Barkan, “Divergence and Convergence in Kenya and Tanzania: Pressures for Reform,” ibid., p. 10. See also Barkan, “To Fault or Not to Fault? Ethnic Fractionalisation, Uneven Development and the Propensity for Conflict in Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya,” in Jeffrey Herbst, Terence McNamee, and Greg Mills, eds.,On the Fault Line: Managing Tensions and Divisions Within Societies (London: Profile Books, 2012).
20 . Julius Nyerere argued that heavy German repression fostered Tanzanian unity by bringing the country's tribes together in nationalist resistance. Henry S. Bienen,Tanzania: Party Transformation and Economic Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 36.
21 . Goran Hyden,Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 98â105.
22 . Cranford Pratt,The Critical Phase in Tanzania ,1945â1968: Nyerere and the Emergence of a Socialist Strategy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 64â77; Bismarck U. Mwansasu and Cranford Pratt, eds.,Towards Socialism in Tanzania (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), pp. 3â15.
23 . Bienen,Tanzania , p. 43.
24 . Michela Wrong,It's Our Turn to Eat: The Story of a Kenyan Whistle-Blower (New York: Harper, 2010), p. 52; see also Barkan, “Divergence and Convergence,” pp. 23â28; Goran Hyden, “Party, State and Civil Society: Control versus Openness,” in Barkan,Beyond Capitalism and Socialism , pp. 81â82.
25 . Maina Kiai, “The Crisis in Kenya,”Journal of Democracy 19, no. 3 (2008): 162â68; Michael Chege, “Kenya: Back from the Brink?”Journal of Democracy 19, no. 4 (2008): 125â39.
26 . Edward Miguel, “Tribe or Nation? Nation Building and Public Goods in Kenya versus Tanzania,”World Politics 56, no. 3 (2004): 327â62. See also Goran Hyden,Political Development in Rural Tanzania (Lund: Bokforlaget Universitet och Skola, 1968), pp. 150â53.
27 . Barkan, “Divergence and Convergence,” pp. 5, 20; Scott,Seeing Like a State , pp. 223â61; Hyden,Beyond Ujamaa , pp. 129â53.
23: THE STRONG ASIAN STATE
  1 . For a study emphasizing the promarket nature of policy in East Asia, see World Bank,The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). The classic studies of industrial policy in East Asia include Chalmers Johnson,MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982); Robert Wade,Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); and Alice H. Amsden,Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). For a more contemporary account of industrial policy in China, see Justin Yifu Lin, “Lessons from the Great Recession,” in Birdsall and Fukuyama, eds.,New Ideas in Development After the Financial Crisis . For cultural interpretations, see Lee Kuan Yew's interview with Fareed Zakaria, “A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew,”Foreign Affairs 73, no. 2 (1994): 109â27; and Lawrence E. Harrison,Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2013).
  2 . One of the most successful instances of industrial policy occurred in the United States with the development of the Internet. The Internet was originally developed by the Pentagon's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, with the TCP/IP protocol underlying it mandated by the government for use in its own networks. This early investment was based on security concerns rather than economic considerations, but it nonetheless succeeded in seeding one of the most important technologies of the twentieth century. Government investment was also critical in the development of semiconductors, radar, jet aircraft, and a host of other technologies.
