Murder and Mayhem (31 page)

A: Tricking a Breathalyzer or a blood alcohol test is virtually impossible. They are accurate, and you can't hide the alcohol in your bloodstream or on your exhaled breath.

Passing a field sobriety test while intoxicated is very difficult. The reason for this is that alcohol affects the cerebellum of the

brain, which controls balance, gait, movement, and coordination. The field tests are designed to evaluate cerebellar function, which in the presence of alcohol is abnormal.

Standing with your eyes closed, arms spread to the side, or on one foot leads to swaying and perhaps falling. Walking a straight line, heel to toe, becomes a wavering, wandering stroll. Touching your finger to your nose results in poking your eye. And looking to the side while facing straight ahead causes the eyes to bounce laterally. (This is called nystagmus.) Regardless of how hard you concentrate on these tasks, the alcohol-soaked cerebellum will prevent performance in a normal fashion. Book him, Dano.

Can Fingerprints Be Lifted from Human Skin?

Q: Can fingerprints be lifted from human skin—for example, from the neck of a victim who was manually strangled? How long after death do the prints remain detectable?

A: The short answer is yes, but the window of opportunity is very short. It depends on many factors, but prints have been lifted from skin and used in identifying perps. On living flesh they last about sixty to ninety minutes. On corpses it is a little longer, depending on environmental conditions. The sooner the prints are collected, the better.

There are several techniques for lifting prints from skin.

The Kromekote Technique:
A Kromekote card is pressed over the suspected print (unexposed Polaroid film may also be used), and then it is dusted with black print powder to expose the print. The print is then photographed and finally lifted with cellophane tape.

The Magna-Brush Technique:
The body or body part is brushed with MacDonnell Magna Jet Black Powder (which is actually extremely fine iron filings), and any prints that appear are pho-

tographed. Typically, a light is directed toward the print from whatever angle exposes the ridge details best.

Electron Emission Radiography:
The skin where the suspected print is located is dusted with a fine lead powder and then examined by X ray. The bulky size of the X ray equipment limits the usefulness of this technique, however.

Iodine-Silver-Plate Technique:
The suspected area is exposed to an iodine vapor, which is absorbed by the moisture in the latent print. It is then dusted with a silver powder that reacts with the iodine to form silver iodide. This compound darkens when exposed to intense light (silver iodide is a component of photographic film), and the print becomes visible. Alternatively, the iodine fuming may be followed by an application of alpha-naphthoflavone to reveal the ridge pattern.

Cyanoacrylate Fuming:
After the application of this substance, the latent print appears white, which may be difficult to see and photograph on light skin. To make it more visible, the fumed prints are colored with various biologic stains, commercial dyes, or TEC (Europium ThenoylTrifluoroAcetone ortho-phenanthroline or EuTTAPhen or simply Europium complex, for short). The result is best viewed under an alternative light source such as an ultraviolet light.

THE CORONER, THE CRIME LAB, AND THE AUTOPSY

Who Can Serve as Coroner?

Q: My story is set in a small town. For plot purposes the county coroner (or is it the medical examiner?) is also the local sheriff. Can this happen? Who can serve as coroner? What are his or her qualifications?

A: Yes, the sheriff can be the coroner, but he cannot be the medical examiner. Let me explain.

There is often a great deal of confusion regarding the roles of the coroner and the medical examiner (M.E.). The coroner is an elected official. He is responsible for all the legal aspects of death: death certificates, court appearances, and overseeing all the functions of the coroner's office. The M.E., by definition, is a physician who specializes in forensics and is usually a forensic pathologist.

Often, the elected coroner is the M.E., and there is a move in most states to require M.E. credentials for anyone running for the position of coroner. In jurisdictions where the coroner is not required to be medically trained, an M.E. is appointed who has the proper training to perform the forensic duties needed. He is often called the deputy coroner.

In most metropolitan areas of the United States the M.E. is the coroner. However, if your story is set in a small remote town, the

coroner could be the local sheriff, undertaker, or auto mechanic. Here, the possibilities are wide open and the story twists endless.

When Are Autopsies Done, and Who Can Request Them?

Q: Under what circumstances are autopsies required? Who officially makes the request? Can the family of the victim prevent an autopsy?

A: The laws that govern the coroner's or medical examiner's office vary in different jurisdictions. However, most operate under similar guidelines. Violent deaths (accidents, homicides, suicides); those that occur at the workplace; those that are suspicious, sudden, or unexpected; those that occur while the person is incarcerated; and those that occur within twenty-four hours of admission to a hospital would typically become "coroner's cases."

Physicians are often asked to sign a death certificate for a patient they know who has died at home. If the patient had severe heart disease or cancer or any disease where death is likely, the physician usually signs the certificate, and the coroner isn't typically involved.

If a patient enters a hospital and dies from any cause within the first twenty-four hours, it automatically becomes a coroner's case. The twenty-four hours is extended indefinitely in the case of a patient who enters the hospital unconscious and never regains consciousness prior to death. The coroner may then contact the physician caring for the patient, and if a satisfactory reason is apparent, the coroner signs the death certificate, and that's the end of it. If the death is unusual or unexplained, an autopsy will take place.

In addition, a court may request an autopsy, as can the coroner, in any case where one might be helpful. The coroner has subpoena power for records and testimony, and has jurisdiction over the body in such cases.

No, in most jurisdictions the family cannot prevent an autopsy by refusing permission. No permission is required if the medical examiner or coroner or the court deems that an autopsy is needed. However, since our legal system allows lawsuits for almost anything, the family could perhaps file suit to block the procedure, in which case a judge would decide the matter. Most likely the autopsy would be performed.

How Detailed Are Routine Autopsies?

Q: How detailed are most autopsies in situations in which the dead person would not at first blush appear to be the victim of foul play? I'm thinking of plot situations, for instance, in which a wife is poisoned or drowned by a seemingly loving husband and the circumstances appear accidental or otherwise not suspicious.

A: The key issue for the killer in this type of circumstance is to prevent an autopsy in the first place. If the victim is elderly, chronically ill with potentially lethal diseases such as heart or lung disease, diabetes, or cancer, and is under the care of a physician, the physician may sign the death certificate stating that the death was due to one of these processes. The certificate would be filed with the coroner's office, of course, but more than likely it would not make him sit up, take notice, and ask questions. The murder would go undiscovered. On the other hand, if the victim was a teenager, both the physician and the coroner would probably be suspicious, and an autopsy would be requested.

Even routine autopsies are typically very thorough. A gross exam and dissection is followed by microscopic tissue examinations and toxicologic studies. The coroner then issues a "cause of death." That said, a "medico-legal autopsy"—that is, one in which the cause of death is suspicious or unexplained—is even more thorough and is generally performed by a pathologist trained in

forensics. In your scenario the medical examiner could easily determine that the cause of death was a poison or drowning. As for who pushed her in the water or gave her the poison, your sleuth will have to figure that out.

What Information Does an Autopsy Report Contain?

Q: What information is contained in the typical autopsy report? Does the coroner or medical examiner always state the cause of death?

A: Each pathologist has his or her own way of preparing an autopsy report, but certain things must be addressed for the report to be complete. And yes, one of those is the cause of death as well as a determination as to whether the death was natural or possibly criminal.

The name, age, sex, and race of the deceased, the estimated time of death, the location of death or where the body was discovered, and the date and time of the autopsy examination are commonly indicated on the first page. Also included are the name and qualifications of the person performing the exam, the names of all persons present, and a brief note concerning the circumstances of the death.

The first section of the actual examination would be titled "External Examination." The M.E. would describe the appearance of the body and comment on any abnormalities, including external injuries and signs of medical intervention. For example, if the person died in a hospital, he may have IV needles and various tubes in place. These are not removed by hospital personnel before the body is sent to the coroner's office since they may be valuable evidence in cases of homicide or medical malpractice. Any injuries from trauma, gunshots, or knives, or external marks of any kind, includ-

ing tattoos, surgical scars, old wound scars, cutaneous (skin) diseases, and birthmarks, would be commented on and photographed.

The next section would be titled "Internal Examination" and would deal with what the M.E. found inside the body. This section is typically subdivided into these areas: head, neck, body cavities, cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels), respiratory system (nose, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes,lungs), gastrointestinal system (esophagus, stomach, intestines), hepatobiliary system (liver, gallbladder, pancreas), genitourinary system (kidneys, bladder, prostate, ovaries, uterus), endocrine system (thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands), lymphoreticular system (spleen, lymph nodes), musculoskeletal system (bones, muscles), and central nervous system (brain, spinal cord). Under each of these headings the M.E. would describe the gross and microscopic appearance of the relevant organs and tissues as well as any abnormalities found.

Next would come a summary of the pertinent and relevant findings. As an example, the summary of the exam on someone who died of a heart attack might include the following:

1. Cardiovascular System

A. Extensive atherosclerotic vascular disease involving the left main, left anterior descending, and circumflex coronary arteries

B. Large area of myocardial necrosis in the distribution of the left anterior descending coronary artery

This means the person had severe hardening of the arteries and died from a heart attack (myocardial necrosis).

Last would be a statement titled "Conclusion." Here the M.E. would state his belief as to the cause of death and whether the death was natural or at the hand of another. He would then sign the report, making it official.

Attachments to the report would detail any toxicologic, ballistic,

DNA, or other examinations that had been performed in that particular case.

What Information Is Placed in a Death Certificate, and Who Can Sign It?

Q: I have a few questions regarding death certificates. Who can sign a death certificate? Is one completed for everyone who dies? I'm also confused by the terms "mode," "cause," and "manner" of death. Are they all the same thing? What information is placed on the actual certificate?

A: In most if not all jurisdictions a death certificate must be signed by a licensed physician. If someone dies in the hospital or from an expected death (someone with terminal cancer or heart disease, for example) at home, his or her personal or treating physician will likely sign the certificate. If not, the M.E. or coroner will. Of course, if the death is under suspicious circumstances, unexpected, unusual, or occurs within twenty-four hours of a hospital admission, the coroner would be involved, and he would sign the certificate whether an autopsy was performed or not.