Lies My Teacher Told Me (5 page)

We now turn to our first hero, Christopher Columbus. “Care should be taken to vindicate
great names from pernicious erudition,” wrote Washington Irving, defending heroification. Irving's three-volume biography of Columbus, published in 1828, still influences what
high school teachers and textbooks say about the Great Navigator. Therefore it will come
as no surprise that heroification has stolen from us the important facets of his life,
leaving only melodramatic minutiae.

Columbus is above all the figure with whom the Modern Agethe age by which we may delineate
these past 500 yearsproperly begins, and in his character as in his exploits we are given
an extraordinary insight into the patterns that shaped the age at its start and still for
trie most part shape it today.

Kirkpatrick Sale As a subject for research, the possibility of African discovery of America has never been
a tempting one for American historians. In a sense, we choose our own history, or more
accurately, we select those vistas of history for our examinations which promise us the
greatest satisfaction, and we have had little appetite to explore the possibility that our
founding father was a black man.

History is the polemics of the victor.

Samuel D. Marble William F. Buckley, Jr.

What we committed in the Indies stands out among the most unpardonable offenses ever
committed against God and mankind and this trade [in Indian slaves] as one of the most
unjust, evil, and cruel among them.

In fourteen hundred and ninety-three, Columbus stole all he could see.

Bartolome de las Casas Traditional verse, updated

In fourteen hundred and ninety-two, Christopher Columbus sailed in from the blue. American
history books present Columbus pretty much without precedent, and they portray him as
America's first great hero. In so canonizing him, they reflect our national culture.
Indeed, now that President's Day has combined Washington's and Lincoln's birthdays,
Columbus is one of only two people the United States honors by name in a national holiday.
The one date that every school child remembers is 1492, and sure enough, all twelve
textbooks I surveyed include it. But they leave out virtually everything that is
important to know about Columbus and the European exploration of the Americas. Mean
while, they make up all kinds of details to tell a better story and to humanize Columbus
so that readers will identify with him.

Columbus, like Christ, was so pivotal that historians use him to divide the past into
epochs, making the Americas before 1492 “pre-Columbian.” American history textbooks
recognize Columbus's importance by granting him an average of eight hundred wordstwo and a
half pages including a picture and a map a lot of space, considering all the material
these books must cover. Their heroic collective account goes something like this:

Born in Genoa, Italy, of humble parents, Christopher Columbus grew up to become an
experienced seafarer. He sailed the Atlantic as far as Iceland and West Africa. His
adventures convinced him that the world must be round. Therefore the fabled riches of the
Eastspices, silk, and goldcould be had by sailing west, superseding the overland route
through the Middle East, which the Turks had closed off to commerce.

To get funding for his enterprise, Columbus beseeched monarch after monarch in western
Europe, After at first being dismissed by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Columbus
finally got his chance when Queen Isabella decided to underwrite a modest expedition.

An early draft of this chapter formed the basis of The Truth about Columbus, a “poster hook” for high school students and teachers (New York: The New Press, 1992).

Columbus outfitted three pitifully small ships, the Nina, the Pinto, and the Santa Maria, and set forth from Spain. The journey was difficult. The ships sailed west into the
unknown Atlantic for more than two months. The crew almost mutinied and threatened to
throw Columbus overboard. Finally they reached the West Indies on October 12, 1492.

Although Columbus made three more voyages to America, he never really knew he had
discovered a New World. He died in obscurity, unappreciated and penniless. Yet without his
daring American history would have been very different, for in a sense Columbus made it
all possible.

Unfortunately, almost everything in this traditional account is either wrong or
unverifiable. The authors of history textbooks have taken us on a trip of their own, away
from the facts of history, into the realm of myth. They and we have been duped by an
outrageous concoction of lies, half-truths, truths, and omissions, that is in large part
traceable to the first half of the nineteenth century.

The textbooks' first mistake is to underplay previous explorers. People from other
continents had reached the Americas many times before 1492. Even if Columbus had never
sailed, other Europeans would have soon reached the Americas. Indeed, Europeans may
already have been fishing off Newfoundland in the 1480s. In a sense Columbus's voyage was not the first but the last “discovery” of the Americas.
It was epoch-making because of the way in which Europe responded. Columbus's importance is
therefore primarily attributable to changing conditions in Europe, not to his having
reached a “new” continent.

American history textbooks seem to understand the need to cover social changes in Europe
in the years leading up to 1492. They point out that history passed the Vikings by and
devote several pages to the reasons Europe was ready this time “to take advantage of the
discovery” of America, as one textbook puts it. Unfortunately, none of the textbooks
provides substantive analysis of the major changes that prompted the new response.

All but one of the twelve books I examined begin the Columbus story with Marco Polo and
the Crusades. (American Adventures starts simply with Columbus.) Here Is their composite account of what was happening in
Europe:

“Life in Europe was slow paced.” “Curiosity about the rest of the world was at a low
point.” Then, “many changes took place in Europe during the 500 years before Columbus's
discovery of the Americas in 1492,”

“People's horizons gradually widened, and they became more curious about the world beyond
their own localities.” “Europe was stirring with new ideas. Many Europeans were filled
with burning curiosity. They were living in a period called the Renaissance.” “What
started Europeans thinking new thoughts and dreaming new dreams? A series of wars called
the Crusades were partly responsible.” “The Crusades caused great changes in the ways that
Europeans thought and acted.” “The desire for more trade quickly spread.” “The old trade
routes to Asia had always been very difficult.”

The accounts resemble each other closely. Sometimes different textbooks even use the same
phrases. Overall, the level of scholarship is discouragingly low, perhaps because their
authors are more at home in American history than European history. They provide no real
causal explanations for the age of European conquest. Instead, they argue for Europe's
greatness in transparently psychological terms“people grew more curious.” Such arguments
make sociologists smile: we know that nobody measured the curiosity level in Spain in 1492
or can with authority compare it to the curiosity level in, say, Norway or Iceland in 1005.

Here is the account in The American Way.

What made these Europeans so daring was their belief in themselves. The people of Europe
believed that human beings were the highest form of life on earth. This was the
philosophy, or belief, of humanism. It was combined with a growing interest in technology or tools and their uses. The
Europeans believed that by using their intelligence, they could develop new ways to do
things.

This is not the place to debate the precepts or significance of humanism, a philosophical
movement that clashed with orthodox Catholicism. In any case, humanism can hardly explain
Columbus, since he and his royal sponsors were devout orthodox Catholics, not humanists. The American Way tells us, nonetheless, that Columbus “had the humanist's belief that people could do
anything if they knew enough and tried hard enough.” This is Columbus as the Little Engine
That Could!

Several textbooks claim that Europe was becoming richer and that the new wealth led to
more trade. Actually, as the historian Angus Calder has pointed out, “Europe was smaller
and poorer in the fifteenth century than it had been in the thirteenth,” owing in part to
the bubonic plague.

Some teachers still teach what their predecessors taught me forty years ago: that Europe
needed spices to disguise the taste of bad meat, but the bad Turks cut off the spice
trade. Three booksThe American Tradition, Land of Promise, and The American Wayrepeat this falsehood. In the words of Land of Promise, “Then, after 1453, when Constantinople fell to the Turks, trade with the East all but
stopped.” But A. H. Lybyer disproved this statement in 1915! Turkey had nothing to do with
the development ofnew routes to the Indies. On the contrary, the Turks had every reason to
keep the old Eastern Mediterranean route open, since they made money from it.

In 1957 Jacques Barzun and Henry Graff published a book that has become a standard
treatise for graduate students of history, The Modem Researcher, in which they pointed out how since 1915 textbooks have perpetuated this particular
error. Probably several of the half-dozen authors of the offending textbooks encountered The Modern Researcher in graduate school. Somehow the information did not stick, though. This may be because
blaming Turks fits with the West's archetypal conviction that followers of“ Islam are
likely to behave irrationally or nastily. In proposing that Congress declare Columbus Day
a national holiday in 1963, Rep. Roland Libonati put it this way: ”His Christian faith
gave to him a religious incentive to thwart the piratical activities of the Turkish
marauders preying upon the trading ships of the Christian world." TheAmericanTradition,LandofPromise,andTheAmericanWaycontinueto reinforce this archetype of a vaguely threatening Islam. College students today
are therefore astonished to learn that Turks and Moors allowed Jews and Christians
freedom of worship at a time when European Christians tortured or expelled |ews and
Muslims. Not a single textbook tells that the Portuguese fleet in 1507 blocked the Red Sea and Persian Gulf to stop trade along the old route,
because Portugal controlled the new route, around Africa.

Most textbooks note the increase in international trade and commerce, and some relate the
rise ofnation-states under monarchies. Otherwise, they do a poor job of describing the
changes in Europe that led to the Age of Exploration. Some textbooks even invoke the
Protestant Reformation, although it didn't begin until twenty-five years after 1492!

What is going on here? We must pay attention to what the textbooks are telling us and what
they are riot telling us. The changes in Europe not only prompted Columbus's voyages and
the probable contemporaneous trips to America by Portuguese, Basque, and Bristol
fishermen, but they also paved the way for Europe's domination of the world for the next
five hundred years. Except for the invention ofagriculture, this was probably the most
consequential development in human history. Our history books ought to discuss seriously what happened
and why, instead of supplying vague, nearly circular pronouncements such as this, from TheAmerican Tradition: “Interest in practical matters and the world outside Europe led to advances in
shipbuilding and navigation.”

Perhaps foremost among the significant factors the textbooks leave out are advances in
military technology. Around 1400, European rulers began to commission ever bigger guns and
learned to mount them on ships. Europe's incessant wars gave rise to this arms race, which
also ushered in refinements in archery, drill, and siege warfare, China, the Ottoman
Empire, and other nations in Asia and Africa now fell prey to European arms, and in 1493
the Americas began to succumb as well.

We live with this arms race still. Since the demise of the Soviet Union, the nuclear arms
race may have come to a temporary resting point. But the West's advantage in military
technology over the test of the world, jealously maintained from the 1400s on, remains
very much contested. Western nations continue to try to keep non-Western nations
disadvantaged in military technology. Just as the thirteen British colonies tried to
outlaw the sale of guns to Native Americans, the United States now tries to outlaw the
sale of nuclear technology to Third World countries. Since money is to be made in the arms
trade, however, and since all nations need military allies, the arms trade with
non-Western nations persists. The Western advantage in military technology is still a
burning issue. Nonetheless, not a single textbook mentions arms as a cause of European
world domination.

In the years before Columbus's voyages, Europe also expanded the use of new forms of
social technologybureaucracy, double-entry bookkeeping, and mechanical printing.
Bureaucracy, which today has negative connotations, was actually a practical innovation
that allowed rulers and merchants to manage farflung enterprises efficiently. So did
double-entry bookkeeping, based on the decimal system, which Europeans first picked up
from Arab traders. The printing press and increased literacy allowed news of Columbus's
findings to travel across Europe much farther and faster than news of the Vikings'
expeditions.

A third important development was ideological or even theological: amassing wealth and
dominating other people came to be positively valued as the key means of winning esteem on
earth and salvation in the hereafter. As Columbus put it, “Gold is most excellent; gold
constitutes treasure; and he who has it does all he wants in the world, and can even lift
souls up to Paradise.”10 In 1005 the Vikings intended only to settle Vineland, their name for New England or, more
likely, the maritime provinces of Canada. By 1493 Columbus planned to plunder Haiti. The sources are perfectly clear about Columbus's motivation: in 1495,
for instance, Michele de Cuneo wrote about accompanying Columbus on his 1494 expedition
into the interior of Haiti “After we had rested for several days in our settlement, it
seemed to the Lord Admiral that it was time to put into execution his desire to search for
gold, which was the main reason he had started on so great a voyage full of so many
dangers,”12 Columbus was no greedier than the Spanish, or later the English and French. But textbooks
downplay the pursuit of wealth as a motive for coming to the Americas when they describe
Columbus and later explorers and colonists. Even the Pilgrims left Europe partly to make
money, but you would never know it from our textbooks. Their authors apparently believe
that to have America explored and colonized for economic gain is somehow undignified.

A fourth factor affecting Europe's readiness to embrace a “new” continent was the
particular nature of European Christianity. Europeans believed in a transportable,
proselytizing religion that rationalized conquest. (Followers of Islam share this
characteristic.) Typically, after “discovering” an island and encountering a tribe of
Indians new to them, the Spaniards would read aloud (in Spanish) what came to be called
“the Requirement.” Here is one version:

I implore you to recognize the Church as a lady and in the name of the Pope take the King
as lord of this land and obey his mandates. If you do not do it, I tell you that with the
help of God I will enter powerfully against you all. I will make war everywhere and
every way that I can. I will subject you to the yoke and obedience to the Church and to
his majesty. I will take your women and children and make them slaves. . . . The deaths
and injuries that you will receive from here on will be your own fault and not that of his
majesty nor of the gentlemen that accompany me.