I Can Hear You Whisper (40 page)

Andrew Oxenham
:
For examples of Andrew Oxenham's work on cochlear implants, see Michael K. Qin and Andrew J. Oxenham, “Effects of Simulated Cochlear-Implant Processing on Speech Reception in Fluctuating Maskers,”
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
114 no. 1(2003): 446–454; Andrew J. Oxenham, “Pitch Perception and Auditory Stream Segregation: Implications for Hearing Loss and Cochlear Implants,”
Trends in Amplification
12 no. 4 (2008): 316–331.

sine waves
:
Robert E. Remez et al., “Speech Perception Without Traditional Speech Cues,”
Science
212 no. 4497 (1981): 947–950; see also http://www.haskins.yale.edu/research/sws.html.

Bob Shannon
:
For Shannon's study, see Robert V. Shannon et al., “Speech Recognition with Primarily Temporal Cues,”
Science
270 no. 5234 (1995): 303–304.

Ghitza and Greenberg
:
Oded Ghitza and Steven Greenberg, “On the Possible Role of Brain Rhythms in Speech Perception: Intelligibility of Time-Compressed Speech with Periodic and Aperiodic Insertions of Silence,”
Phonetica
66 no. 1–2 (2009): 113–126.

CHAPTER 17: SUCCESS!

For personal chapters, I relied on my journals, recollections of events, and files of reports about Alex from audiologists, doctors, speech therapists, and teachers. I also interviewed some of the professionals who have worked with Alex over the years.

CHAPTER 18: THE SEARCH FOR EVIDENCE

This chapter uses material from interviews with Don Eddington, Michael Dorman, Elissa Newport, Mario Svirsky, Paulette Fiedor, the Leekoff family, Peter Hauser, Marc Marschark, David Pisoni, and Daphne Bavelier.

In 1987 . . . The conclusion from that year
:
Wilson and Dorman,
Better Hearing with Cochlear Implants
, 2.

a far more effective speech processing program
:
Author interviews with Michael Dorman and Don Eddington; Wilson and Dorman,
Better Hearing with Cochlear Implants
, 11–20.

parents didn't have to be all that good
:
Jenny L.
Singleton and Elissa L. Newport, “When Learners Surpass Their Models: The Acquisition of American Sign Language from Inconsistent Input,”
Cognitive Psychology
49 no. 4 (2004): 370–407; Danielle S. Ross and Elissa L. Newport, “The Development of Language from Non-native Linguistic Input,”
Proceedings of the 20th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development
2 (1996): 634–645.

four portraits of Abraham Lincoln
:
Mario A. Svirsky et al., “Current and Planned Cochlear Implant Research at New York University Laboratory for Translational Auditory Research,”
Journal of the American Academy of Audiology
23 no. 6 (2012): 422–437.

enormous variability
:
Marschark,
Raising and Educating a Deaf Child,
49–56.

“
Kids with implants are doing better”
:
Marschark writing on website for
Raising and Educating a Deaf Child,
June 21, 2011,
at http://www.rit.edu/ntid/educatingdeafchildren/?cat=4&paged=3.

Mario Svirsky
:
For examples of Svirsky's research on outcomes, see Mario A. Svirsky et al., “Language Development in Profoundly Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants,”
Psychological Science
11 no. 2 (2000): 153–158; Mario A. Svirsky et al., “Development of Language and Speech Perception in Congenitally, Profoundly Deaf Children as a Function of Age at Cochlear Implantation,”
Audiology and Neurotology
9 no. 4 (2004), 224–233.

Niparko study:
John K. Niparko et al., “Spoken Language Development in Children Following Cochlear Implantation,”
JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association
303 no. 15 (2010): 1498–1506.

Geers study:
Ann E. Geers, Johanna G. Nicholas, and Allison L. Sedey, “Language Skills of Children with Early Cochlear Implantation,”
Ear and Hearing
24 no. 1S (2003): 46S–58S; Emily A. Tobey et al., “Factors Associated with Development of Speech Production Skills in Children Implanted by Age Five,”
Ear and Hearing
24 no. 1S (2003): 36S–45S; Ann E. Geers, “Predictors of Reading Skill Development in Children with Early Cochlear Implantation,”
Ear and Hearing
24 no. 1S (2003): 59S–68S; Ann Geers et al., “Long-Term Outcomes of Cochlear Implantation in the Preschool Years: From Elementary Grades to High School,”
International Journal of Audiology
47 no. S2 (2008): S21–S30.

“
We felt retarded”
:
Jackie Roth quoted in Andrew Solomon, “Defiantly Deaf,”
New York Times
, Aug. 28, 1994.

the philosophy underlying deaf education had changed
:
For the history of changes in deaf education, see Paludneviciene and Harris, “Impact of Cochlear Implants on the Deaf Community,” and Harry G. Lang, “Perspectives on the History of Deaf Education,” in
The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education
,
vol. 1, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011);
Toward Equality: The Education of the Deaf
, 1988, at http://archive.gao.gov/t2pbat17/135760.pdf; in Marschark and Hauser, eds.,
Deaf Cognition
, see Bavelier et al. on visual attention
(chap. 9), Pisoni on cochlear implants
(chap. 3), Marschark on language comprehension
(chap.12), and Hauser on executive function (chap. 11).

“
total communication” and SimCom
:
Marschark,
Raising and Educating a Deaf Child
, 66–67.

“
shouting”
:
Harlan Lane quoted in
Atlantic Monthly
, p. 50.

Cued Speech
:
Ibid., 88–89.

bilingual-bicultural
:
Ibid., 147–148.

The question is no longer
:
Marschark and Hauser, eds.,
Deaf Cognition
, chap. 16.

“
First, there has never been any real evidence”
:
Marshark,
Raising and Educating a Deaf Child
, 4.

“
Effective parent-child communication”
:
Ibid., 5.

“
as a hearing person
”
:
Ibid., 7.

“We have to consider”
:
Marschark and Hauser, eds., Deaf Cognition, chap. 16.

“Are there any deaf children”
:
Ibid.

CHAPTER 19: A PARTS LIST OF THE MIND

Broca's area and Wernicke's area
:
See Goldstein,
Sensation and Perception
, 8th ed., 323.

Phineas Gage
:
Steve Twomey, “Phineas Gage: Neuroscience's Most Famous Patient,”
Smithsonian
, January 2010, online at http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Phineas-Gage-Neurosciences-Most-Famous-Patient.html.

a macaque monkey's visual system
:
David C. Van Essen, Charles H. Anderson, and Daniel J. Felleman, “Information Processing in the Primate Visual System: An Integrated Systems Perspective.” Science 255 no. 5043 (1992): 419–423.

map of the auditory system
:
Jon H. Kaas, and Troy A. Hackett, “Subdivisions of Auditory Cortex and Processing Streams in Primates.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 no. 22 (2000): 11793–11799.

“
I say to you ‘cat'”
:
From David Poeppel presentation, 2013 AAAS Annual Meeting, Boston.

Hickok and Poeppel's model
:
Gregory Hickok and David Poeppel, “The Cortical Organization of Speech Processing,”
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
8 no. 5 (2007): 393–402; Gregory Hickok and David Poeppel, “Dorsal and Ventral Streams: A Framework for Understanding Aspects of the Functional Anatomy of Language,”
Cognition
92 no. 1 (2004): 67–99; Gregory Hickok and David Poeppel, “Towards a Functional Neuroanatomy of Speech Perception,”
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
4 no. 4 (2000): 131–138.

I even found it in a new textbook
:
Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 323.

Each of those linguistic tasks
:
Dorit Ben Shalom and David Poeppel, “Functional Anatomic Models of Language: Assembling the Pieces,”
Neuroscientist
14 no. 1 (2008): 119–127; Eric Pakulak and Helen Neville, “Biological Bases of Language Development,”
Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
, Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development, published online April 28, 2010, at http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/pages/pdf/pakulak-nevilleangxp.pdf; Helen J. Neville and Daphne Bavelier, “Neural Organization and Plasticity of Language,”
Current Opinion in Neurobiology
8 no. 2 (1998): 254–258. For more on development of linguistic tasks and reading, see Maryanne Wolf,
Proust and the Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading Brain
(New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 113.

Janet Werker
:
For Werker study, see Judit Gervain and Janet F. Werker, “Prosody Cues Word Order in 7-Month-Old Bilingual Infants,”
Nature Communications
4 no. 1490 (2013).

“
word onset effect”
:
Helen Neville, “Nature and Nurture and the Developing Brain,” talk for OHSU Brain Awareness.

Usha Goswami
:
For examples of Usha Goswami's work, see Usha Goswami et al., “Amplitude Envelope Onsets and Developmental Dyslexia: A New Hypothesis,”
PNAS
99 no. 16 (2002): 10911–10916; Jennifer M. Thomson and Usha Goswami, “Rhythmic Processing in Children with Developmental Dyslexia: Auditory and Motor Rhythms Link to Reading and Spelling,”
Journal of Physiology–Paris
102 no. 1 (2008): 120–129.

CHAPTER 20: A ROAD MAP OF PLASTICITY

This chapter is based on interviews with Helen Neville, Eric Pakulak, and Michael Merzenich.

Head Start
:
Neville et al., “Family-Based Training Program Improves Brain Function, Cognition, and Behavior in Lower Socioeconomic Status Preschoolers,” www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1304437110.

Mike Merzenich
:
For Merzenich's neuroplasticity studies, see Begley,
Train Your Mind
, 37–45.

“
neuroeducation”
:
For more on neuroeducation, see Gary Stix, “How to Build a Better Learner,”
Scientific American
, August 2011; Sheida Rabipour and Amir Raz, “Training the Brain: Fact and Fad in Cognitive and Behavioral Remediation,”
Brain and Cognition
79 (2012): 159–179; Usha Goswami, “Neuroscience and Education: From Research to Practice?”
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
, AOP, published online April 12, 2006, at http://www.uni.edu/gabriele/page4/files/goswami002820060029-neuroscience-and-education.pdf.

“
profiles in plasticity”
:
Neville, “Nature and Nurture and the Developing Brain” (
“
road map of plasticity
”
); Courtney Stevens and Helen Neville, “Profiles of Development and Plasticity in Human Neurocognition,” in Michael Gazzaniga, ed.,
The Cognitive Neurosciences
, 4th ed., (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 165–181; Helen J. Neville and Daphne Bavelier, “Neural Organization and Plasticity of Language,”
Current Opinion in Neurobiology
8 no. 2 (1998): 254–258.

the better babies are at responding
:
Patricia K. Kuhl et al., “Phonetic Learning as a Pathway to Language: New Data and Native Language Magnet Theory Expanded (NLM-e),”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London—Series B: Biological Sciences
363 no. 1493 (2008): 979–1000; Discussed in Eric Pakulak and Helen Neville, “Biological Bases of Language Development,”
Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
, 2010. http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/pages/PDF/Pakulak-NevilleANGxp.pdf.

in thirteen-month-olds
:
Debra L. Mills, Sharon Coffey-Corina, and Helen Neville, “Language Comprehension and Cerebral Specialization from 13 to 20 Months,”
Developmental Neuropsychology
13 no. 3 (1997): 397–445.

By twenty months
:
Debra L. Mills, Sharon Coffey-Corina, and Helen Neville, “Language Comprehension and Cerebral Specialization in 20-Month-Old Infants,”
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
5 no. 3 (1993): 317–334.

English-Korean speakers
:
Elissa L. Newport, “Maturational Constraints on Language Learning,”
Cognitive Science
14 no. 1 (1990): 11–28; Jacqueline S. Johnson and Elissa L. Newport, “Critical Period Effects in Second Language Learning: The Influence of Maturational State on the Acquisition of English as a Second Language,”
Cognitive Psychology
21 (1989): 60–99.