Heretic Queen (46 page)

    
6
. Margaret Spufford,
The World of Rural Dissenters, 1520–1725
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also
Seventeenth Century Journal
1, no. 1, 1986, p. 31.

    
7
.
CSP
,
Foreign
, 1:51, no. 144.

    
8
. Philip had discovered by January 1555 that Paul IV (Gian Pietro Carafa) had signed a secret treaty with France negotiated by the cardinal of Guise (maternal uncle of Mary Queen of Scots) to wrest the Kingdom of Naples away from the Spanish Empire in what would become known as the Carafa War of 1556–57. When the pope was told that his plan had been discovered, he sent his nephew Carlo, Cardinal Carafa, on a “peace mission.” The Spanish representative at the talks, Francisco de Vargas, claimed that Carlo Carafa “has always been and always will be pure poison, an enemy of their Majesties [Charles V and Philip II] and a Frenchman body and soul, full of mischievous ideas.”
CSP
,
Spain
,
Philip and Mary
, p. xviii.

    
9
.
CSP
,
Rome
, 1:1, no. 2.

  
10
. Mary Stuart had been married earlier in the year to the Dauphin Francis of France. As the future queen of France and the queen of Scotland, she embodied a formidable threat to Elizabeth.

  
11
. Neale,
Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments,
1:34.

  
12
. Ibid., 35.

  
13
. Ibid., 36–37.

  
14
. Ibid.

  
15
. J. E. Neale,
Elizabeth I
(London: Folio Society, 2005), 55.

  
16
. Ibid. See also
CSP, Spain,
vol. 1, no. 37.

  
17
. Neale,
Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments,
1:54.

  
18
. Ibid., 60.

  
19
. Ibid., 64–67.

  
20
. Ibid., 72. See also
Commons Journal
, 1:59.

  
21
. Ibid., 74–75. See also
Zurich Letters,
1:24, and
Parker Correspondence
(Parker Society), 66.

  
22
. This was first tested by Sir Thomas More in 1523.

Three: Determined to Be a Virgin Queen

    
1
. Conyers Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1977), 198.

    
2
. Ibid.

    
3
. Chris Laoutaris,
Shakespearean Maternities: Crises of Conception in Early Modern England
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008), 62.

    
4
. Ibid., 27. See also C. D. O'Malley,
Andreas Vesalius
(University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1964), 161–62 of the
Fabrica
(1543).

    
5
. Ibid., 28.

    
6
. Castiglione, Baldesar,
The Book of the Courtier
, tr. George Bull (London: Penguin Classics, 2003), 217.

    
7
. It was deemed incestuous because Henry had slept with Anne's sister, Mary.

    
8
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth,
138–39.

    
9
. Her mother, Mary of Guise, had been regent of Scotland since she was a week old, her father having been slain at Flodden by Henry VIII's army.

  
10
. Antonia Fraser,
Mary Queen of Scots
(London: Folio Society, 2004), 68.

  
11
. Ibid., 69. See also Hume Brown,
Early Travellers in Scotland
(Edinburgh: James Thin, 1973), 75.

  
12
.
CW,
52.

  
13
. Castiglione,
Book of the Courtier
, 216.

  
14
. Mary Queen of Scots had been sent to the French court to live from the age of six as the future wife of Henry II's eldest son, Francis. Mary's mother was manipulated by her powerful Guise brothers in France—the cardinal of Lorraine and Francis, Duke of Guise—to do as they bid. Henry II never fully trusted the Guise family but appreciated them as a powerful force at court and was pleased to have such a crucial pawn as Mary Queen of Scots as his daughter-in-law.

  
15
. Roger Collins,
Keepers of the Keys of Heaven
(London: Phoenix, 2010), 346.

  
16
. Ibid., 386.

  
17
. Neale,
Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments
, 1:86.

  
18
.
CSP, Spain,
1:1.

  
19
.
CSP, Rome,
1:15.

  
20
. Ibid.

  
21
. Pius IV was pope from December 25, 1559, to December 9, 1565.

Four: Many an Uneasy Truce

    
1
. Collins,
Keepers of the Keys of Heaven,
363.

    
2
. Nicholas Crane,
Mercator
(London: Phoenix, 2003), 42–45.

    
3
. H. de Vocht, “Thomas Harding,”
English Historical Review
35, no. 138 (April 1920): 233–44.

    
4
. Robert Tittler,
Nicholas Bacon: The Making of a Tudor Statesman
(Athens: University of Ohio Press, 1976), 59.

    
5
. Ibid., 235.

    
6
. Collins,
Keepers of the Keys of Heaven
, 362.

    
7
. Naturally, this process led to other abuses by other heads of state, with the Holy Roman Emperor demanding the same “sweetener” as his nephew Philip. Later, from the time of Henry IV of France (1589–1610), the French kings would join in as well, making an utter farce of the conclaves electing the pope. The practice was only abolished by Pius X after the conclave electing him in 1903.

    
8
. Geoffrey Parker,
The Grand Strategy of Philip II
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 93.

    
9
. Mary had two Guise uncles, Francis of Guise and Louis I of Guise. Francis was the military leader; Louis was the second cardinal of Guise. Both also adopted the title “of Lorraine,” i.e., Francis of Lorraine and cardinal of Lorraine for Francis and Louis, respectively.

  
10
. J. Lynch, “Philip II and the Papacy,”
Transactions of the Royal History Society,
5th ser., 11 (London, 1961): 24.

  
11
. As part of the “deal” with Charles V, the papacy also relinquished the right to appoint the clergy to their benefices.

  
12
. Lynch, “Philip II and the Papacy,” 26–27.

  
13
. See Parker,
Grand Strategy of Philip II,
chapters 1, 2. Also
CSP, Rome,
1:21–26; Ronald,
Pirate Queen,
chaps. 1–4.

  
14
.
CSP, Rome,
1:20.

  
15
. Ibid., 22.

  
16
. Ibid., 24.

  
17
.
CSP, Foreign,
2:98, no. 229.

  
18
. Ibid., no. 231.

  
19
. Ibid., no. 246.

  
20
. Ibid., 2:144, no. 334.

  
21
. Ronald,
Pirate Queen,
35. See also
CSP, Foreign
, 2:313, no. 623.

  
22
.
CSP, Foreign
, 2:188 (excerpt from December 21 letter from the Duchess of Parma to Philip II from MS Paris. Angl. Reg. xxi Teulet, 1. 467).

  
23
. France followed Salic Law, which automatically excluded any female issue from becoming a queen regnant.

  
24
. Reputed to be why the French Protestants were called “Huguenots.” Another interpretation is that they named themselves after Hugues Capet, father of the French Capetian Dynasty.

  
25
. Leonie Frieda,
Catherine de Medici: Renaissance Queen of France
(New York: Fourth Estate, 2003), 135.

  
26
. Ibid., 136. Also, N. M. Sutherland, “Queen Elizabeth and the Conspiracy at Amboise, March 1560,”
English Historical Review
81, no. 320 (July 1996): 474–89; J. Dureng, “La Complicité d'Angleterre dans le complot d'Amboise,”
Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine
6, no. 4 (1904–05): 249–56. Note that this last article has created some furore and has often been quoted as a source proving that Queen Elizabeth was implicated in the plot. Having read the article, I agree with N. M. Sutherland that its research is questionable and conclusion spurious.

  
27
. In Henry VIII's will, which was approved by Parliament, he effectively disowned his elder sister Margaret's descendants from her marriage to the Scots king in favor of his younger sister Mary's heirs by the Earl of Suffolk. Catherine was Lady Jane Grey's younger sister.

Five: The Battle for Hearts and Minds

    
1
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth
, 228.

    
2
. Tracy Borman,
Elizabeth's Women
(London: Jonathan Cape, 2009), 244. See also
CSP, Spain,
1:116.

    
3
.
CSP, Foreign,
4:312, no. 550 (5).

    
4
. Castligione,
Book of the Courtier,
199.

    
5
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth,
229.

    
6
. The second-largest city in England at the time was Norwich, followed by Bristol and the other port cities. Water remained the preferred mode of transport for goods and people whenever possible.

    
7
. Gãmini Salgãdo,
The Elizabethan Underworld
(London: Folio Society, 2006), 1.

    
8
. Ibid., 8.

    
9
. David Cressy,
Bonfires and Bells: National Memory and the Protestant Calendar in Elizabethan and Stuart England
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989), 26.

  
10
. Ibid., 8.

  
11
.
CW,
665;
Twelfth Night,
2.3.88–89.

  
12
. See Dame Frances Yates's seminal work
The Art of Memory
(London: Pimlico, 2005).

  
13
. Eamon Duffy,
The Stripping of the Altars
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 570.

  
14
. Ibid.

  
15
. Duffy,
The Stripping of the Altars
, 572–73, 566.

  
16
. Ibid., 577–78.

  
17
. T. Cooper,
Certaine Sermons
(London, 1580), 164. These sentiments were echoed by John Knox.

  
18
. H. Holland,
A Treatise against Witchcraft
(Cambridge, 1590), 2.

  
19
. Tittler,
Nicholas Bacon
, 59.

  
20
.
CSP, Rome,
75, no. 140.

  
21
. The first councils attempted were in Mantua in 1537, then Vicenza in 1538. The first Trent council was called for 1542 but was boycotted by the French, meaning that the first time it met was in December 1545.

  
22
. Ibid., 75–77.

  
23
. Ibid., 79.

  
24
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth,
234.

  
25
. Ibid., 235. See also BL, Add. MSS 35830 f. 228.

  
26
.
CSP, Rome,
79, no. 153.

  
27
. Ibid., 59, no. 126.

  28. Frieda,
Catherine de Medici,
159.

Six: Untrustworthy Allies

    
1
.
CSP, Foreign,
1561-1562 (London, 1865), 4:301, no. 598.

    
2
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth,
245–46.

    
3
.
CSP, Foreign,
4:21–28.

    
4
. SP 70/37 f., May 2, 1562.

    
5
.
CSP, Venice,
337.

    
6
.
CSP, Rome,
77–78.

    
7
. Ibid., 82.

    
8
. Horsey had been exiled from England ever since Mary Tudor's battle for her crown. He had been one of Robert Dudley's accomplices in the effort to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne. He had only returned from his French exile in 1561.

    
9
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth,
248–49.

  
10
.
CSP, Spain,
259.

  
11
. Read,
Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth,
257.

  
12
. N. M. Sutherland,
Princes, Politics and Religion, 1547–1589
(London: Hambledon Press, 1984), 140–53.

  
13
.
CW,
142–43.

Seven: Christ's Soldiers

    
1
. Patrick Collinson,
Godly People
(London: Hambledon Press, 1983), 11, attributed to John Huckford of Elmstead in the proceedings in the Archdeaconry Court in Colchester.

    
2
. Ibid., 7.

    
3
. Christopher Haigh, “Puritan Evangelism in the Reign of Elizabeth I,”
English Historical Review
92, no. 362 (January 1977): 30–31.