Guantánamo (59 page)
Authors: Jonathan M. Hansen
62
Henry Cabot Lodge, “Our Blundering Foreign Policy,”
Forum
(March 1895): 8.
Forum
(March 1895): 8.
63
Smith,
What Happened in Cuba?
, 85â87; Pérez,
Cuba
, 135â38; Thomas,
Cuba
, 272â80; and Ferrer,
Insurgent Cuba
, 93â99, 112â15.
What Happened in Cuba?
, 85â87; Pérez,
Cuba
, 135â38; Thomas,
Cuba
, 272â80; and Ferrer,
Insurgent Cuba
, 93â99, 112â15.
64
Roosevelt quoted in Hansen,
The Lost Promise of Patriotism
, 22â23. Cf. Williams, “United States Indian Policy,” 816â26.
The Lost Promise of Patriotism
, 22â23. Cf. Williams, “United States Indian Policy,” 816â26.
65
Walter LaFeber, “A Note on the âMercantilist Imperialism' of Alfred Thayer Mahan,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
48, no. 4 (March 1962): 674â85.
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
48, no. 4 (March 1962): 674â85.
66
Alfred Thayer Mahan, “The United States Looking Outward,”
The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future
(Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1897), 4â17; and Mahan, “Hawaii and Our Future Sea Power,” in
The Interest of America
, 35â36.
The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future
(Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1897), 4â17; and Mahan, “Hawaii and Our Future Sea Power,” in
The Interest of America
, 35â36.
67
Mahan, “Hawaii and Our Future Sea Power,” 52; Mahan, “The Strategic Features of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea,” in
The Interest of America
, 280â82; and Mahan, “A Twentieth-Century Outlook,” in
The Interest of America
, 261.
The Interest of America
, 280â82; and Mahan, “A Twentieth-Century Outlook,” in
The Interest of America
, 261.
68
Mahan, “The United States Looking Outward,” 9â17.
69
Alfred Thayer Mahan, “A Twentieth-Century Outlook,” in
The Interest of America
, 261, 226.
The Interest of America
, 261, 226.
70
“Poor Spain in a Worry,”
New York Times
, March 17, 1895, 17.
New York Times
, March 17, 1895, 17.
3 INDEPENDENCE DAY
1
“The Sunday at Camp McCalla,” correspondence of the
New York Journal
, in
The Spanish-American War: The Events as Described by Eye Witnesses
(Chicago: Herbert S. Stone & Company, 1899), 94â95.
New York Journal
, in
The Spanish-American War: The Events as Described by Eye Witnesses
(Chicago: Herbert S. Stone & Company, 1899), 94â95.
2
Stephen Crane, “Marines Signaling Under Fire at Guantanamo,”
McClure's Magazine
(February 1899), 332.
McClure's Magazine
(February 1899), 332.
3
Alex Szarazgat,
De la Conquista a la Revolución
, tomo 2 (Buenos Aires: Nuestra America, 2005), 12; Louis A. Pérez, Jr.,
Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), chap. 6; Hugh Thomas,
Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom
(New York: Da Capo, 1998), 264â309; and Philip S. Foner,
The Spanish- Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism
, vol. 1 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), chap. 1.
De la Conquista a la Revolución
, tomo 2 (Buenos Aires: Nuestra America, 2005), 12; Louis A. Pérez, Jr.,
Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), chap. 6; Hugh Thomas,
Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom
(New York: Da Capo, 1998), 264â309; and Philip S. Foner,
The Spanish- Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism
, vol. 1 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), chap. 1.
4
Philadelphia Inquirer
, Feb. 27, 1895, 1.
, Feb. 27, 1895, 1.
5
Sioux City Journal
, Feb. 27, 1895, 1.
, Feb. 27, 1895, 1.
6
New York Times
, Feb. 28, 1898, 5;
New York Times
, March 5, 1895, 5. Throughout the insurgency,
Times
articles continued to anticipate its demise long after evidence rendered such anticipations absurd, if not fraudulent.
, Feb. 28, 1898, 5;
New York Times
, March 5, 1895, 5. Throughout the insurgency,
Times
articles continued to anticipate its demise long after evidence rendered such anticipations absurd, if not fraudulent.
7
The Daily Picayune
, Feb. 27, 1895, 7. Similar reports occurred throughout U.S. newspapers; see, for example,
The Trenton Times
, Feb. 27, 1895, 4;
Boston Daily Journal
, Feb. 28, 1895, 1;
Idaho Daily Statesman
, Feb. 28, 1895, 3; and
The Kansas City Star
, Feb. 28, 1895, 6, the last of which, perhaps taking Spanish accounts of events in Cuba at face value, announced that “a very small revolution” in Cuba had been “dispersed easily.”
, Feb. 27, 1895, 7. Similar reports occurred throughout U.S. newspapers; see, for example,
The Trenton Times
, Feb. 27, 1895, 4;
Boston Daily Journal
, Feb. 28, 1895, 1;
Idaho Daily Statesman
, Feb. 28, 1895, 3; and
The Kansas City Star
, Feb. 28, 1895, 6, the last of which, perhaps taking Spanish accounts of events in Cuba at face value, announced that “a very small revolution” in Cuba had been “dispersed easily.”
8
Edwin T. Atkins,
Sixty Years in Cuba
(Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1926), 151â52.
Sixty Years in Cuba
(Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1926), 151â52.
9
Ibid., 138â40.
10
Ibid., 158; “Cuba's Rare Insurgents,”
New York Times
, April 23, 1895, 5.
New York Times
, April 23, 1895, 5.
11
New York Times
, May 3, 1895, 5.
, May 3, 1895, 5.
12
Grover Cleveland, “American Interests in the Cuban Revolution,”
Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs
, 1896, xxviiâlxii, available at
www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/gc26.htm
.
Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs
, 1896, xxviiâlxii, available at
www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/gc26.htm
.
13
Gómez's two proclamations of July and November 1895 are available at
www.historyofcuba.com/history/time/timetbl2b.htm#sca
.
www.historyofcuba.com/history/time/timetbl2b.htm#sca
.
14
Weyler quoted in Pérez,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 165.
Cuba: Between Reform
, 165.
15
Wheeling Register
, Jan. 19, 1896, 1.
, Jan. 19, 1896, 1.
16
Pérez,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 174.
Cuba: Between Reform
, 174.
17
Column from
The New York World
, reprinted in
The Kansas City Star
, June 29, 1896, 5.
The New York World
, reprinted in
The Kansas City Star
, June 29, 1896, 5.
18
See President Cleveland: “If Spain still holds Havana and the seaports and all the considerable towns, the insurgents still roam at will over at least two-thirds of the inland country. If the determination of Spain to put down the insurrection seems but to strengthen with the lapse of time and is evinced by her unhesitating devotion of largely increased military and naval forces to the task, there is much reason to believe that the insurgents have gained in point of numbers and character and resources, and are none the less inflexible in their resolve not to succumb without practically securing the great objects for which they took up arms.”
President Grover Cleveland to Congress, Dec. 7, 1896. Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1896, xxviiâlxii, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C.
President Grover Cleveland to Congress, Dec. 7, 1896. Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1896, xxviiâlxii, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C.
19
Pérez,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 168â75.
Cuba: Between Reform
, 168â75.
20
Emory W. Fenn, “Ten Months with the Cuban Insurgents,”
The Century Magazine
56, no. 2 (June 1898): 307.
The Century Magazine
56, no. 2 (June 1898): 307.
21
Ibid., 176.
22
President Cleveland to Congress, Dec. 7, 1896, Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 1896, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C., xxviiâlxii.
23
General Máximo Gómez to President Grover Cleveland, Feb. 9, 1897, available at
www.historyofcuba.com/history/gomez4.htm
.
www.historyofcuba.com/history/gomez4.htm
.
24
Herald
story published in the
Bismarck
(North Dakota)
Daily Tribune
, Dec. 31, 1897, 1.
story published in the
Bismarck
(North Dakota)
Daily Tribune
, Dec. 31, 1897, 1.
25
Undersecretary of War Joseph C. Breckenridge to U.S. Army commander Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles, Dec. 7, 1897, in Pichardo Viñals,
Documentos para la Historia de Cuba
, 513â14, available at
www.historyofcuba.com/history/bmemo.htm
.
Documentos para la Historia de Cuba
, 513â14, available at
www.historyofcuba.com/history/bmemo.htm
.
26
Thomas,
Cuba
, 360â62.
Cuba
, 360â62.
27
Pérez,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 176â78; Thomas,
Cuba
, 372â81.
Cuba: Between Reform
, 176â78; Thomas,
Cuba
, 372â81.
28
Thomas,
Cuba
, 376.
Cuba
, 376.
29
Lars Schoultz,
Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 139.
Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 139.
30
Estrada y Palma handed Janney a $2-million Cuban bond (6 percent interest), which, discounted in the United States, was worth half that. See Thomas,
Cuba
, 376; David F. Healy,
The United States in Cuba, 1898â1902: Generals, Politicians, and the Search for Policy
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 26â27; and John Offner,
An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895â1898
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 189.
Cuba
, 376; David F. Healy,
The United States in Cuba, 1898â1902: Generals, Politicians, and the Search for Policy
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 26â27; and John Offner,
An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895â1898
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 189.
31
Louis A. Peréz Jr.,
The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 39â40; and Peréz,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 179.
The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 39â40; and Peréz,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 179.
32
Keeler's move to Boston seems to have been driven more by wanderlust than by lack of opportunity in Bangor, which, despite the long, cyclical economic depression at the end of the nineteenth century, was successfully diversifying from an economy based solely on lumber to one of pulp and paper manufacturing, communications, and transportation. See Sara K. Martin, “The Little City in Itself: Middle-Class Aspiration in Bangor, Maine, 1880â1920,” M.A. thesis, University of Maine, 2001, chap. 1.
33
Frank Keeler,
The Journal of Frank Keeler
, ed. Carolyn A. Tyson (Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Papers Series, 1968), 3.
The Journal of Frank Keeler
, ed. Carolyn A. Tyson (Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Papers Series, 1968), 3.
34
Boston Morning Journal
, March 25, 1898, 1.
, March 25, 1898, 1.
35
Ibid.
36
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 3.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 3.
37
Robert Huntington Sr. to Robert Huntington Jr., May 4, 1898, Huntington Papers, U.S. Marine Corps Library, Quantico, Va.
38
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 4.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 4.
39
Huntington Sr. to Huntington Jr., May 4, 1898; Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 4; Annual Reports of the Navy Department for the Year [hereafter ARND] 1898 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898), 441; and Charles L. McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign of 1898,”
The Marine Corps Gazette
1, 3 (Sept. 1916): 223.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 4; Annual Reports of the Navy Department for the Year [hereafter ARND] 1898 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898), 441; and Charles L. McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign of 1898,”
The Marine Corps Gazette
1, 3 (Sept. 1916): 223.
40
A large-animal veterinarian assures me that “horses don't vomit,” but one wonders if he has ever been off Cape Hatteras in heavy weather on a boat with a horse.
41
Huntington Sr. to Huntington Jr., May 4, 1898.
42
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 25.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 25.
43
Jack Cameron Dierks,
A Leap to Arms: The Cuban Campaign of 1898
(Philadelphia: Lippincott Company, 1970), 49.
A Leap to Arms: The Cuban Campaign of 1898
(Philadelphia: Lippincott Company, 1970), 49.
44
Ibid., 49â50.
45
Robert Huntington, Sr., to Robert Huntington, Jr., May 27, 1898, Huntington Papers, U.S. Marine Corps Library, Quantico, Va.
46
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 5.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 5.
47
Herbert H. Sargent,
The Campaign of Santiago de Cuba
(Chicago: A. C. McClure & Co., 1907), 2:47 and 1:47, 83.
The Campaign of Santiago de Cuba
(Chicago: A. C. McClure & Co., 1907), 2:47 and 1:47, 83.
48
French Ensor Chadwick,
The Relations of the United States and Spain: The Spanish American War
, vol. 1 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1911), 318; ARND, 448.
The Relations of the United States and Spain: The Spanish American War
, vol. 1 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1911), 318; ARND, 448.
49
Sargent,
The Campaign
, 1:83, 100, 2:102; Dierks,
A Leap to Arms
, 182.
The Campaign
, 1:83, 100, 2:102; Dierks,
A Leap to Arms
, 182.
50
ARND, 392.
51
C. F. Goodrich to William T. Sampson, May 19, 1898, ARND, 210â11.
52
Alfred Thayer Mahan,
The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future
(Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1897), 26.
The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future
(Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1897), 26.
53
ARND, 210â11.
54
ARND, 397.
55
ARND, 399.
56
ARND, 489; Sargent,
The Campaign
, 1: 228â29; Chadwick,
Spanish-American War
, 1:356; Henry B. Russell,
History of Our War with Spain Including the Story of Cuba
(Hartford, Conn.: A.D. Worthington & Co., 1898), 63.
The Campaign
, 1: 228â29; Chadwick,
Spanish-American War
, 1:356; Henry B. Russell,
History of Our War with Spain Including the Story of Cuba
(Hartford, Conn.: A.D. Worthington & Co., 1898), 63.
57
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 7.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 7.
58
Ibid., 37.
59
Ibid., 7.
60
Ibid., 9.
61
McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign,” 229; Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 11.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 11.
62
Robert Huntington, Sr., to Robert Huntington, Jr., June 19, 1898, Huntington Papers, 3.
63
Ibid.
64
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 13; McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign,” 229â30.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 13; McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign,” 229â30.
65
J. F. Holden-Rhodes, “The Marines Would Stay,”
Marine Corps Gazette
, November 1982, 69â70.
Marine Corps Gazette
, November 1982, 69â70.
66
McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign,” 232; Holden-Rhodes, “Marines Would Stay,” 70.
67
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 13.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 13.
68
McCawley, “The Guantánamo Campaign,” 232; Stephen Crane, “War Memories,” in R. W. Stallman and E. R. Hagemann, eds.,
The War Dispatches of Stephen Crane
(New York: New York University Press, 1964), 269. Crane seems to get the day of this activity wrong, implying here that this happened on June 13, where generally more credible sources such as McCawley and Keeler give the date for the arrival of journalists and new guns as the twelfth.
The War Dispatches of Stephen Crane
(New York: New York University Press, 1964), 269. Crane seems to get the day of this activity wrong, implying here that this happened on June 13, where generally more credible sources such as McCawley and Keeler give the date for the arrival of journalists and new guns as the twelfth.
69
Arthur J. Burks, “Recall in Cuba,”
Leatherneck
30, no. 12 (Dec. 1947): 58.
Leatherneck
30, no. 12 (Dec. 1947): 58.
70
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 13; Burks, “Recall in Cuba,” 58â59.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 13; Burks, “Recall in Cuba,” 58â59.
71
Keeler,
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 14â17.
Journal of Frank Keeler
, 14â17.
72
Felix Pareja to Arsenio Linares y Pombo, June 10, 1898, ARND, 450 (letter captured by the Cubans en route to Santiago).
73
Ibid.
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