God Against the Gods (34 page)

Let us suppose that in modern Europe the faithful had deserted the Christian churches to worship Allah or Brahma, to follow the precepts of Confucius or Buddha, or to adopt the maxims of the Shinto; let us imagine a great confusion of all the races of the world in which Arabian mullahs, Chinese scholars, Japanese bonzes, Tibetan lamas and Hindu pundits would be preaching fatalism and predestination, ancestor-worship and devotion to a deified sovereign, pessimism and deliverance through annihilation—a confusion in which all those priests would erect temples of exotic architecture in our cities and celebrate their disparate rites therein.
³⁹

Cumont’s whole point in offering up such a phantasmagoria is to allow us a glimpse of the world into which Constantine and Julian were born. “Such a dream,” he remarks, “would offer a pretty accurate picture of the religious chaos in which the ancient world was struggling before the reign of Constantine.” But Cumont remarks in passing that it is a dream “which the modern world may perhaps realize.”
⁴⁰
And, of course, the scene that he conjures up
has
been fully realized—Cumont could have been describing New York or Los Angeles, London or Paris, in the twenty-first century. What we sometimes call “the New Age”—an age of religious liberty and diversity in which each of us is permitted to mix and match our religious beliefs and practices according to our own taste and inspiration—is really something very, very old. Indeed, it is the oldest religious tradition of all, one that predates monotheism and very nearly prevailed over it.

Of all the ironies that we have encountered so far, here is the richest and cruelest. Those of us who live in the Western world are no longer at risk of torture and death by agents of the church or the state for believing in more than one god or no god at all. And yet we find ourselves very much at risk from the latest generation of religious zealots who have preserved the oldest traditions of monotheism, including holy war and martyrdom. The new rigorists include Jews, Christians and Muslims, and the atrocities of September 11 are only the most recent examples of the violence that men and women are inspired to commit against their fellow human beings by their true belief in the Only True God.

Indeed,
all
the excesses of religious extremism in the modern world can be seen as the latest manifestation of a dangerous tradition that began in the distant past. When the Taliban dynamited the Buddhist statuary of Afghanistan, they were following the example of the idol-smashers of antiquity. When Arab suicide bombers carried out “martyr operations” in Haifa, Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, and when a Jewish physician opened fire on Muslims at prayer at the Tomb of the Patriarchs, each one was acting out a kind of zealotry that was inspired by a tragic misreading and misapplication of ancient texts.

The dark side of monotheism, of course, is not its only side. The blessings of Judaism, Christianity and Islam far outweigh—and, we must hope, will long outlast—the curse of religious fanaticism that is implicit in the very notion of the Only True God. But it also true that we make a mistake when we write off the pagan tradition as something crude and demonic. After all, the values that the Western world embraces and celebrates—cultural diversity and religious liberty—are pagan values. And so, even when we congratulate ourselves on being the beneficiaries of twenty centuries of “ethical monotheism,” we might pause and ponder how the world would have turned out if the war of God against the gods had ended with an armistice rather than the victory of the Only True God.

Chronology

“Before the Common Era” (B.C.E.) is the equivalent of “Before Christ” (B.C.), and “Common Era” (C.E.) is the equivalent of
Anno Domini
(A.D.), which literally means “In the year of Our Lord.” The abbreviations are used in Jewish and secular scholarship to avoid the theological implications of B.C. and A.D.

Before the Common Era (B.C.E.)

c.1364-1347
Reign of Akhenaton, the world’s first recorded monotheist.

c. 640-609
Reign of Josiah, the king of Judah and reformer of the faith of ancient Israel.

586
Destruction of the Temple of Yahweh at Jerusalem during the Babylonian Conquest.

356-323
Life of Alexander the Great.

204
Worship of the Great Mother (
Magna Mater
) comes to Rome.

164
Defeat of Antiochus IV, Syrian king and conqueror of Judea, by the Maccabees.

97
Roman Senate bans human sacrifice in pagan worship.

63
Jerusalem is conquered by the Roman general Pompey and Judea is absorbed into the Roman empire.

Common Era (C.E.)

64
First persecution of Christians at Rome under the emperor Nero.

66-70
The Jewish War against Rome, ending in the defeat of the Zealots and destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem.

72
Mass suicide by the Jewish defenders of Masada.

132-135
Jewish insurrection against Roman occupation of Palestine under Bar Kokhba.

February 27, 274
Traditional birthdate of Constantine. (The earliest of several dates proposed by various scholars is 271.)

293
Diocletian establishes the Tetrarchy, consisting of a pair of rulers (an “Augustus” and a “Caesar”) in both the western and eastern portions of the Roman empire.

303
Diocletian issues an edict that criminalizes the practice of Christianity, and the Great Persecution begins.

305
Abdication of Diocletian.

306
Death of Constantius the Pale and acclamation of his son, Constantine, as Augustus.

312
Constantine embraces Christianity after a vision on the eve of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

313
Religious toleration extended to Christians under the Edict of Milan.

321
Excommunication and first exile of Arius by Bishop Alexander of Alexandria.

324
Defeat and execution of Licinius; Constantine becomes the sole emperor of Rome.

325
Council of Nicaea.

325-326
Constantine orders the execution of his eldest son, Crispus, offspring of his first wife, Minervina.

c. 325
Birth of Gallus, nephew of Constantine and half brother of Julian.

326
Edict of Constantine against Christian heretics.

330
Dedication of Constantinople as “New Rome.”

c. 331
Birth of Julian, nephew of Constantine.

336
Death of Arius.

May 22, 337
Baptism and death of Constantine the Great.

September 9, 337
Three sons of Constantine the Great (Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans) declared Augusti (emperors).

337-338
Murder of siblings and other male relations of Constantine the Great by his son Constantius II.

340
Constantine II, eldest son of Constantine the Great, is ambushed and killed by the forces of his brother, Constans.

341
First imperial decree against the offering of pagan sacrifices.

350
Constans is assassinated by the forces of the pagan usurper Magnentius, leaving his brother Constantius II as last surviving son of Constantine the Great and sole emperor of Roman empire.

351
Gallus, half brother of Julian, is appointed Caesar by Constantius II.

354
Death of Gallus.

355
Julian is appointed Caesar by Constantius II and marries Helena, sister of Constantius II.

357
Altar of the goddess of Victory removed from the Roman Senate by order of Constantius II.

359
Death of Eusebia, second wife of Constantius II.

February 360
Julian proclaimed Augustus by his troops in Paris.

November 360
Julian issues edict of toleration in favor of paganism.
361
Death of Helena, wife of Julian.

November 3, 361
Death of Constantius II, last surviving son of Constantine the Great, en route to battle with Julian.

December 11, 361
Julian enters Constantinople as the sole Augustus of the Roman empire.

February 4, 362
Decree ordering the reopening of pagan temples published at Alexandria.

June 26, 363
Death of Julian in battle with the Persians.

379
Ascension of Theodosius I to imperial throne.

380
Theodosius I elevates Christianity to status of state religion of Rome.

381
Theodosius I condemns Arianism and other “heresies.”

385
Death of Priscillian, first Christian to be tried and executed by a public court for doctrinal “error.”

386
Destruction of temple of Zeus at Apamea by imperial soldiers.

390
Destruction of the library at Alexandria.

391
Destruction of Serapeum at Alexandria.

392
Absolute prohibition against offering pagan sacrifices or visiting temples.

395
Death of Theodosius I.

415
Death of Hypatia.

Major Historical Figures

Akhenaton
(Amenhotep IV) (d. c. 1347 B.C.E.): Pharaoh of Egypt and founder of the first recorded monotheistic religion, a faith based on the worship of the sun god called Aton. His original throne name was Amenhotep IV, but he changed his name to Akhenaton to signify his allegiance to Aton.

Alexander
(d. 328): Bishop of Alexandria and early leader of the orthodox church in its struggle against Arius and the so-called Arian heresy.

Alexander the Great
(356-323 B.C.E.): Macedonian king and conqueror who spread Hellenism—the culture, religion and language of ancient Greece—throughout the ancient world.

Antiochus IV
(c. 215-164 B.C.E.): King of Syria and conqueror of the land of Judea. He sought to impose Hellenism on the Jews but was defeated after a long guerrilla war with Judah and the Maccabees.

Arius
(c. 250-336): Alexandrian priest whose teachings on the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth were condemned by the orthodox church and sparked the division in the early Christian church between orthodoxy and the so-called Arian heresy.

Athanasius
(c. 293-373): Orthodox bishop of Alexandria and leader of the struggle against Arius and the so-called Arian heresy and other dissenting factions in the church.

Basilina
(died c. 331): Mother of Julian.

Constans
(c. 323-350): Youngest son of Constantine the Great and coemperor in the western Roman empire.

Constantia
(d. c. 336): Half-sister of Constantine the Great and wife of his coemperor, Licinius.

Constantina
(d. c. 354): Daughter of Constantine the Great and wife of Gallus, the older half brother of Julian.

Constantine the Great
(c. 274-337): Roman emperor who embraced and legalized Christianity and commenced the process that ultimately raised Christianity to the status of the state religion of the Roman empire.

Constantine II
(c. 316-340): Son of Constantine the Great and coemperor in the western Roman empire.

Constantius Chlorus
(Constantius the Pale) (c. 250-306): Roman general and emperor, father of Constantine the Great.

Constantius II
(317-361): Son of Constantine the Great who reigned as Augustus first in the eastern empire and later as the sole emperor after the death of his two brothers, Constantine II and Constans, before raising his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar.

Crispus
(d. c. 326): Son of Constantine the Great by Minervina, his first wife (or his concubine). Reigned briefly as Caesar under his father before his arrest and execution on his father’s orders.

Diocletian
(245-316): Roman emperor, founder of the Tetrarchy (by which four emperors shared in the rule of the Roman empire), and the last Roman emperor to persecute Christianity during the so-called Great Persecution.

Donatus
(d. c. 355): Bishop of the so-called Church of the Martyrs, which broke away from the orthodox church over charges that some orthodox clergy cooperated with pagan authorities during the Great Persecution. His followers are known as Donatists and the rift between the orthodox church and the Church of the Martyrs is known as the Donatist schism.

Eusebia
(d. 359): Second wife of the emperor Constantius II. She encouraged her husband to raise Julian to the rank of Caesar.

Eusebius
(d. 361): The influential eunuch who served as chamberlain of the imperial palace during the reigns of Constantine the Great and his son Constantius II.

Eusebius of Caesarea
(c. 265-340): Arian bishop who was a contemporary of Constantine the Great; author of
Life of Constantine
and other works on the Bible, theology and history.

Eusebius of Nicomedia
(d. c. 342): Arian bishop and imperial counselor who baptized Constantine the Great on his deathbed.

Fausta
(289-326): Daughter of the emperor Maximian, wife of Constantine the Great, and mother of some or all of the three sons who later reigned as Roman emperors, Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans. Constantine “put away” his first consort, Minervina, in order to marry Fausta in 307.

Galerius
(c. 250-311): Pagan coemperor under Diocletian and persecutor of Christianity. His death marked the end of the Great Persecution.

Gallus
(c. 325-354): Nephew of Constantine the Great and half brother of Julian. Served as Caesar under his cousin, the Augustus Constantius II, until he was deposed and murdered on the latter’s order.

Helena
(c. 248-328): Consort of Constantius the Pale, possibly his concubine rather than his wife, and mother of Constantine the Great.

Helena
(d. 361): Daughter of Constantine the Great and his second wife, Fausta. She was named after Constantine’s mother. Sister of Constantius II and wife of Julian.

Herod
(“the Great”) (73-4 B.C.E.): Monarch of Arab descent who was placed on the throne of Judea by the Romans, reigned as King of the Jews and refurbished the Second Temple at Jerusalem in the Hellenistic style.

Josephus
(37-100): Jewish general who defected to the Romans during the Jewish War (66-70) and then wrote memoirs and historical works under imperial patronage in Rome.

Josiah
(c. 640-609 B.C.E.): King of Judah, the southern kingdom of biblical Israel. He reformed the religion of the Israelites by centralizing worship in Jerusalem and purging the faith of pagan elements.

Judah
(“the Maccabee”) (d. c. 160 B.C.E.): Son of the Jewish priest Mattathias and leader of the Jewish war of national liberation against the Syrian occupiers of Judea. His family name was Hasmon, and his relations ruled the independent Jewish monarchy as the Hasmonean dynasty.

Julian
(“the Apostate”) (c. 331-363): Nephew of Constantine the Great, and the last pagan emperor of the Roman empire.

Julius Constantius
(d. c. 337): Half brother of Constantine the Great and father of Julian. He was murdered during the blood purge that followed the death of Constantine.

Licinius
(c. 265-324): Coemperor and brother-in-law of Constantine the Great. His defeat allowed Constantine to rule as the sole Augustus of the Roman empire.

Magnentius
(d. 353): Pagan general who tried and failed to depose Constantius II as Roman emperor and restore paganism in the Roman empire.

Mattathias
: See Judah.

Maxentius
(c. 278-312): Son of the emperor Maximian and rival of Constantine for the imperial throne. Constantine’s defeat of Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 was the occasion for the miraculous vision that prompted Constantine to embrace Christianity.

Maximian
(c. 240-310): Roman emperor who was father-in-law of both Constantius the Pale and his son, Constantine the Great, and who was ultimately defeated by Constantine in the struggle for the imperial throne.

Minervina
: First consort of Constantine the Great and mother of his firstborn son, Crispus. Constantine “put away” Minervina in order to marry Fausta, daughter of the emperor Maximian, in 307.

Nero
(37-68): First emperor to persecute Christians in ancient Rome.

Paul
(d. c. 64): Apostle who converted from Judaism to Christianity, encouraged the early Christian church to abandon the observance of Jewish ritual law and carried the message of Christianity throughout the Roman empire, including the city of Rome.

Theodora
: Wife of Constantius the Pale, stepmother of Constantine the Great and paternal grandmother of Julian. Constantius the Pale married Theodora in 293 after “putting away” his first consort, Helena, Constantine’s mother.

Theodosius
I (c. 346-395): Christian emperor who established orthodox Christianity as the state religion of Rome and completed the criminalization of paganism.