Frozen in Time (27 page)

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. 1918. Observations on three cases of scurvy.
Journal of the American Medical Association.
Vol. 71, No. 21.

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. 1970.
Unsolved Mysteries of the Arctic.
New York: Collier Books.

Stone, Ian R. 1996. The Franklin search in Parliament.
Polar Record.
32:182.

Sutherland, Patricia D., ed. 1985.
The Franklin Era in Canadian Arctic History, 1845–1859.
Mercury Series Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper. No. 131. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.

Sutherland, Peter. 1852.
Journal of a Voyage in Baffin's Bay and Barrow Straits, in the Years 1850–1851, performed by H.M. Ships ‘Lady Franklin' and ‘Sophia,' under the Command of Mr William Penny, in Search of the Missing Crews of h.m. Ships ‘Erebus' and ‘Terror'.
London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.

Wallis, Helen. 1984. England's Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries.
Arctic.
Vol. 37, No. 4.

Watt, J., Freeman, E.J., and Bynum, W.F. 1981.
Starving Sailors: the Influence of Nutrition Upon Naval and Maritime History.
Bristol: National Maritime Museum.

Wightwick, T. 1988. Canned vegetables and lead poisoning.
Lancet.
2:1121.

Wonders, W.C. 1968. Search for Franklin.
Canadian Geographical Journal.
76:116–27.

Woodward, F.J. 1951.
Portrait of Jane: A Life of Lady Franklin.
London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Wright, Noel. 1959.
Quest for Franklin.
London.

Young, Allen. 1879.
The Two Voyages of the Pandora in 1875 and 1876.
London: Edward Stanford.

The Anthenaeum,
17 February 1849, 17 November 1849

Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine,
November 1855

Edmonton Journal,
9 September 1930

Edmonton Sun,
24 September 1984, 26 September 1984, 21 October 1984

Illustrated London News,
24 May 1845, 12 October 1850, 18 February 1854, 28 October 1854, 15 October 1859, 1 January 1881

The Times,
26 April 1845, 12 May 1845, 23 December 1851, 3 January 1852, 5 January 1852, 20 January 1852

Toronto Globe
4 April 1850, 30 April 1850, 23 October 1854, 25 October 1854, 11 October 1859

Other material was derived from primary sources, including various Parliamentary Papers of Great Britain (post-1847), the Arctic Blue Books, the Muster Books of the
Erebus
and
Terror,
National Archives (UK); Admiralty medical journal,
HMS Enterprize,
1848–49, ADM 101/99/4, National Archives (UK); the collection of the Hydrographic Department, Ministry of Defence (UK) for the letter from E.A. Inglefield to Sir Francis Beaufort, 14 September 1852; the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, for the letter from Harry D.S. Goodsir, to his uncle, 2 July 1845; the British Library (Barrow Bequest, Add. Ms. 35306, section 4) for the letter from E.A. Inglefield to John Barrow, 14 September 1852; Donald Bray for the letter from Sarah Hartnell and Charles Hartnell to John and Thomas Hartnell, 23 December 1847.

Numbers in italic indicate figures.

All numbers refer to pages in the print edition.

Admiralty, 18–19, 37, 47–48, 57–59, 65, 73, 146–47

Advance,
69–72, 231

Air support, Beattie expeditions, 107, 119, 130–31, 152–53, 189–90, 204–5, 212

Aleekee, Mike, 107–12

Ambler, James, 250–51

Amundsen, Roald, first transit of Northwest Passage, 19, 100, 189

Amy, Roger: bacteriological analysis, 238–39; Braine autopsy, 230–33; field team 1984, 152; field team 1986, 201, 204; Hartnell autopsy and X-rays, 214–20; polar bear encounter, 159–60; Torrington autopsy, 175–77, 193

Anderson, James, 75–76

Anderson, Larry, 202, 204, 210–14, 217, 230–32

Animals: bears, 63, 159–60, 204, 217–18; dogs, 45, 204, 217–18, 250; foxes, 28, 50, 121; as game, 23, 28, 63; hares, 23, 28, 131; pet monkey, 45; rats, 72, 231

Antiscorbutics: in Arctic exploration, 22–24, 32, 41, 52, 57, 68, 70, 71; fresh meat, eating off the land, 22–24, 28–30, 44, 68, 70–72, 102–3; tinned food (putative), 15–16, 68, 104.
See also
Scurvy

Artefacts and debris: Beechey Island, 63–64, 160; “boat place,” 86–87, 97, 134–39; Booth Point, 13; Capes Riley and Spencer, 60–61; Crozier's Landing, 123–26; given to M'Clintock, 79–80; Montreal Island, 75–76; Northumberland House, 163; Peffer River, 80–81; rope, 125; from search expeditions, 161; tin can cairn, 64, 179–81, 203–4; used by Inuit, 75, 95, 131; Victoria Island, 59; Victory Point cairn, 85

Austin, Horatio Thomas, 58–60, 161

Autopsies, 51, 174–77, 193–94, 214–20, 230–33

Back, George, 20, 30–33, 85, 103, 249

Bacteriological analysis, 238–39, 248

Banting, Sir Frederick, 161, 163

Barretto Junior
, 44–45

Barrow, Sir John, 18, 20–21, 25–26, 33–35

Beattie, Owen B.: exhumation permits, 146–47, 158–65; in field, 1981, 11–17, 107–12; in field, 1982, 118–39; in field, 1984, 153–77, 178–90; in field, 1986, 201–34; forensic anthropologist, 105–7; lead poisoning hypothesis, 140–47.
See also
Braine, William; Exhumations; Expeditions in 20th century; Hartnell, John; Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition; Torrington, John

Beechey Island: burial of Thomas Morgan, 68; description, 152–53, 155–57; Franklin's winter camp, 82, 92, 151–52; graves discovered, 61–66; map,
viii
; Parks Canada excavations, 160.
See also
Braine, William; Hartnell, John; Torrington, John

Belcher, Sir Edward, 67, 161–63, 185–86

Bellot, Joseph René, 161

Bennett, Gordon, 249

“Boat place,”
ix
, 86–88, 97, 134–39

Boats, 27–29, 72, 86–88, 99, 132–33

Bones.
See
Human remains

Bonnett, James, 52

Booth Point,
ix,
11–17, 109, 111–12

Braine, William, 3, 61, 73, 145, 222–34, 239

Bray, Donald, 199–200

Breadalbane,
HMS, 163–64

Burials: Franklin,
90,
101–2; preparation of body, 172,
173,
207, 229; reburials, 96–99, 118, 129, 146–47, 177, 188–89, 220–21, 233–34; Thomas Morgan, 68; Torrington, 196–98

Burnett, Sir William, 57

Burwash, L.T., 101–2

Cairns: Beechey Island,
viii
, 60, 163; Crozier's Landing, 125; found by Schwatka, 98; James Ross sledging party (1849), 52, 53; of tin cans, 64, 179–81, 203–4; Victory Point, 81–85, 122–23.
See also
Notes

Campsites (Beattie and searchers), 119, 125, 129, 153, 202

Campsites (Franklin),
ix
, 59–66, 81, 97, 99, 108, 111–13, 125, 152, 160–64.
See also
Overwintering

Canada, 7, 100, 109–10, 160

Cannibalism: Beattie's evidence, Booth Point, 16–17, 111–13; behaviour patterns of cannibals, 116–17; contemporary reaction, 5, 7, 75–76, 113–15; Hall's reports (from Inuit), 95, 114; in modern disasters, 115; Rae's reports (from Inuit), 5, 7, 75, 113–14; Schwatka's reports (from Inuit), 114–15

Carlson, Arne: Braine's grave, excavation, 223–30; field team 1982, 118–39; field team 1984, 154, 170, 173; field team 1986, 201; Hartnell's grave, excavation, 202–3, 205; Torrington autopsy, 175–77

Clothing: boots, 114, 132, 138–39, 250; with Franklin party remains, 80, 86, 97, 130, 171, 184–85, 206–8, 210, 214, 226, 228–29, 230; at Victory Point cairn, 85.
See also
Fabric

Coffins, 165–69, 181–83, 196–97, 202–3, 205–6, 224–26, 230.
See also
Plaques, on exhumed coffins

Collinson, Richard, 58–59, 68

Coombes, William, death of, 49–50

Crozier, Francis, 38–39, 83, 95

Cundy, William, illness and death, 51

Damkjar, Eric, 154, 160–64, 166–67, 201, 203–4, 230–33

Danehower, John, 251–52

Day and night, polar, 23, 50, 165–66

Debility, illness and death on expeditions: De Long expedition, 249–53; early expeditions, 23–24, 28, 31–33, 38; Franklin expedition, 45, 61–65, 83, 86, 241–42; and Polar Failure, 19–20; psychological symptoms, 50, 68–71, 142, 195; and redefined “Franklin mystery,” 126; reported by Inuit, 95–96; in Royal Navy, 14–15; search expeditions, 49–57, 67–72, 89–90; tuberculosis, 186, 193–94, 219, 238–39, 241.
See also
Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition; Scurvy

De Haven, Edwin J., 59, 61, 69–70

De Long, George Washington, 249–53

Des Voeux, Charles F., 82, 129

Dickens, Charles, 41, 64, 113–14

Digby, Karen, 12–13, 107–12

Donaldson, Seaman, death of, 32

Enterprise
(whaling ship), 45–46

Enterprise,
HMS, 48–51, 58, 68

Epitaphs, 61–62, 100, 153–54.
See also
Plaques, on exhumed coffins

Equipment and supplies: Beattie expeditions, 120–21,
211,
212; 19th-century expeditions, 23, 35, 40–42, 44, 55, 85–88.
See also
Food and diet; Goldner, Stephan; Tinned food

Erebus,
HMS and
Terror,
HMS: artefacts from, 75–76; Inuit reports, 101; logs lost, 99; and Northwest Passage, 95–96; officers and crew, 259–61; outfitting of, 40–42; previous history, 31–35; reports of fate, 79–83

Excavations: Braine's grave, 223–30; and daylength, 165–66; Hartnell's grave, 179–84, 205; by Parks Canada, Beechey Island, 160; techniques, 155, 157–58, 202–4, 222–24; Torrington's grave, 157–58, 165

Exhumations: of Braine, 222–34; ethical and legal requirements, 146–47; of Hartnell, 178–90, 201–21; by Inuit, 95; Sutherland's proposal, 65–66; of Torrington, 151–77.
See also
Trace element analysis; X-ray studies

Expeditions, North Pole: De Long (1879–81), 249–53; Kane (1853–55), 70–72, 231; Peary (1909), 19

Expeditions before Franklin: Back (1836–37), 20, 30–33, 103, 249; Dease and Simpson (1839), 93; James Clark Ross (1839–43), 33–34; John Ross (1818), 21; John Ross (1829–33), 25–30; Parry (1819–20), 21–25

Expeditions in search of Franklin, 262–63; Admiralty efforts, 47–57, 58–59; Beechey Island discoveries, 61–66; Belcher (1852–54), 161; De Haven (1850–51), 69–70; Hall (1869), 94–96; international and private, 58–66, 69–72; interpretations and commentary, 91, 100–102; James Ross (1848–49), 47–57; Kane (1853–55), 70–72, 231; Kennedy (1851–52), 161; Lady Franklin's efforts, 77–78; M'Clintock (1857–59), 78–90; Penny (1850–51), 59, 61, 161; Rae (1853–54), 74–76; Richardson and Rae (1847–49), 47–48; Schwatka (1878–80), 96–99

Expeditions in 20th century: Beattie (1981), 107–12; Beattie (1982), 118–39; Beattie (1984), 146–47, 152–90; Beattie (1986), 201–34; Burwash (1930), 101–2; Rasmussen (1923), 101

Fabric, 97–98, 130, 158, 165, 170.
See also
Clothing

Fitzjames, James, 38–41, 44–45, 65, 83

Food and diet: Beattie expedition (1982), 120–21, 133–35; early expeditions, 23–25, 28, 32–33; James Ross rescue expedition, 48; of Royal Navy, 14–16; spoilage, 64–65, 236, 237.
See also
Antiscorbutics; Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition; Scurvy; Starvation; Tinned food

Forensic anthropology, 13, 16–17, 105–17, 138, 153–54.
See also
Beattie, Owen B.

Fox,
20, 78–80,
80

Franklin, Eleanor, 43

Franklin, Lady Jane (née Griffin), 5–6, 43–44, 59, 67, 77–78, 90, 186

Franklin, Sir John: biography and character, 36–38, 44–45; death of, 83; historical reinterpretations of, 4–7; influence on Amundsen, 100; portrait of,
37;
premonitions, 43; remains and burial,
90
, 99, 101–2; reputation, 4–7, 77–78, 90, 102

Franklin expedition, known events: deaths declared, 73; instructions from Admiralty, 42–43; loss of ships and overland escape attempt, 81–88, 99; and Northwest Passage, 91–93; officers and crew, 36–40, 259–61; origins, preparations and launch, 33–46; reasons for failure, 241–42; route,
viii,
92–93

Franklin expedition, reconstructed events, 88–91, 95, 99, 116–17, 137–39, 143, 151–52, 195–98

Franklin mystery, 1–8, 11–12, 41, 64, 76–79, 100, 113–14, 126

Geographic locations and features: Adelaide Peninsula,
ix,
95, 98, 101; Back River,
viii,
74, 83; Bellot Strait, 26, 79; Boothia Peninsula,
viii,
26, 74–75; Cape Crozier,
ix,
86; Cape Jane Franklin,
ix,
123; Cape Riley, 60–61, 156; Cape Spencer, 61; Crozier's Landing,
ix,
102, 124–26; Devon Island,
viii,
59–61, 156; Erebus Bay,
ix,
119, 134–35; Frank-lin Point, 123; Gladman Point,
ix,

109–10; Gore Point, 127; Melville Island, 21–25; North Magnetic Pole, 26–27; O'Reilly Island, 95–96, 98; Peffer River, 80–81, 99; Point Le Vesconte,
ix,
129–30; Port Leopold,
viii,
48–51, 53;

Rivière de la Rocquette,
ix,
131–33; Simpson Strait,
ix,
91–93, 99; Somerset Island,
viii,
48, 51–53,
54;
Starvation Cove,
ix,
99, 108; Tulloch Point,
ix,
109–10; Victory Point, 26, 81–85, 93, 122–23; Wellington Channel, 82, 92, 151, 161.
See also
Beechey Island; Booth Point; King William Island; Northwest Passage

Gibson, William (1931 survey), 109

Gilbert, W.E., on Crozier's Landing, 102

Gjoa
, 100, 189

Goldner, Stephan, 65, 180–81, 238, 249

Goodsir, Harry D. S., 39–40, 44, 214,
215

Gore, Graham, 81–85, 129

Graves: Beechey Island gravesite and headboards, 61–63, 153–54; Braine's, 222–24, 233–34; Franklin's, 101–2; Hartnell's, 179–82, 188, 202–3; Inuit and explorer graves confused, 109–11; Inuit reports of, 12; Irving's, 97,
98,
125; reburial by Schwatka, 129–30; smell from, 157, 165; Thomas Morgan's, 160–61; Torrington's, 154–55, 157–58; water in, 158–59, 202.
See also
Exhumations; Permafrost

Gray, James, illness and death, 50–51

Grinnell, Henry, 59, 69–72

Griper,
HMS, 21–25

Haddington, Lord, 36

Hair, lead levels in, 194, 239–40

Hall, Charles Francis, 12, 94–99, 101–2, 114, 145–46

Hartnell, John: descendants of, 199–201; discharged dead, 73; exhumations, studies and reburial, 178–90, 201–21; gravesite, 3, 62,
180;
scientific importance, 145, 239

Hartnell, Sarah, 200

Hartnell, Thomas, 200

Hecla,
HMS, 21–25

Hiqiniq, Kovic, 107–12

Hobson, William Robert, 78, 81–82, 86–88, 89–90, 129

Hudson's Bay Company, 38, 43, 59, 75–76, 85, 141–42

Human remains: at “boat place,” 86–88, 134–38; Booth Point skeleton,
ix,
11–17, 109, 111–12,
113;
evidence of cannibalism, 111–12,
113,
115–17; found by search expeditions, 80–81, 96–99, 118, 129, 130; found in 20th century, 100–101; at Gladman Point, 110; of Inuit, in modern surveys, 109–10; in Inuit reports, 95–96, 98–99, 101; skulls, 14, 111–12, 176; trace element analysis, 111, 140–41, 144–47, 194–95, 235–36, 239–40, 245–47.
See also
Braine, William; Hartnell, John; Preservation, of archaeological materials; Torrington, John

Ice (sea ice): early expeditions, 21, 26–28, 31;
Erebus
and
Terror
beset and abandoned, 83; hazards of, 128–29; and James Ross rescue expedition, 55;
Jeannette
beset and crushed, 250; near King William Island, 93

Inglefield, Edward Augustus, 185–87, 206

Inuit: adaptive lifestyle of, 29–30, 72, 102–3; brought to England, 73–74; Dickens's characterization, 113–14; disturbance of Franklin campsites and graves, 97; and European artefacts, 75, 79–80, 95, 131; Franklin party, reports of, 74–76, 95–96, 98–99, 101–2, 114–15; gravesite, report of, 12; lead levels in remains, 141, 145,
246;
mummified remains, 192; skeletons, 109–10; and tinned foods, 24, 86

Inuit informants: Enukshakak, 101; Ikinnelikpatolok, 98–99; Nowya, 101; Ogzeuckjeuwock, 115; Qaqortingneq, 101

Investigator,
HMS, 48–51, 58, 68, 161

Irving, John, 83, 97, 125

Jeannette,
249–53

Jenkins, David, death of, 51

Kane, Elisha Kent, 61–64, 69, 70–72, 231