Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (96 page)

73. Guillermo Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, 1492-1898 (Manuel Tunon de Lara (ed.), Historia de Espana, 6 (Barcelona, 1983), pp. 217-18); James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Latin America. A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil (Cambridge, 1983), p. 137.

74. Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New Spain, pp. 41, 50-1.

75. Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, `The Population of Colonial Spanish America', CHLA, 2, p. 18.

76. Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, p. 149.

77. See Solano, Ciudades hispanoamericanas, ch. 3.

78. See Erwin Walter Palm, Los monumentos arquitectonicos de la Espanola (2 vols, Ciudad Trujillo, 1955), 1, ch. 2; Valerie Fraser, The Architecture of Conquest. Building in the Viceroyalty of Peru 1535-1635 (Cambridge, 1990); Kagan, Urban Images, pp. 31-4.

79. Richard Kagan, `A World Without Walls: City and Town in Colonial Spanish America', in James D. Tracy (ed.), City Walls. The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective (Cambridge, 2000), ch. 5.

80. Quinn, New England Voyages, pp. 236-41; Fraser, Architecture of Conquest, p. 176, n. 31.

81. Susan Myra Kingsbury (ed.), The Records of the Virginia Company of London (4 vols, Washington, 1906-35), 3, pp. 669-70; and see John W. Reps, Tidewater Towns. City Planning in Colonial Virginia and Maryland (Williamsburg, VA, 1972), p. 46.

82. Craven, `Indian Policy', p. 70.

83. Ibid., pp. 74-5.

84. Kevin P. Kelly, "`In dispers'd Country Plantations": Settlement Patterns in SeventeenthCentury Surry County, Virginia', in Thad W. Tate and David L. Ammerman (eds), The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century (New York and London, 1979), essay 6.

85. Meinig, The Shaping of America, 1, p. 148; T. H. Breen, `The Culture of Agriculture: the Symbolic World of the Tidewater Planter, 1760-1790', in David D. Hall, John M. Murrin, Thad W. Tate (eds), Saints and Revolutionaries. Essays on Early American History (New York and London, 1984), pp. 247-84; Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1982), pp. 15-17, and chs 1-3 for the Virginia landscape in general.

86. Reps, Tidewater Towns, p. 197; Richard R. Beeman and Rhys Isaac, `Cultural Conflict and Social Change in the Revolutionary South: Lunenburg County, Virginia', The Journal of Southern History, 46 (1980), pp. 525-50, at p. 528.

87. W. W. Abbot, The Colonial Origins of the United States, 1607-1763 (New York, London, Sydney, Toronto, 1975), p. 44.

88. John Frederick Martin, Profits in the Wilderness (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1991), p. 319.

89. Meinig, Shaping of America, 1, p. 104; Martin, Profits in the Wilderness, pp. 37-8.

90. See Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness. The First Century of Urban Life in America, 1625-1742 (1939; repr. Oxford, London, New York, 1971).

91. Richard Bushman, The Refinement of America (New York, 1992), p. 142.

92. James D. Kornwolf, Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America (3 vols, Baltimore and London, 2002), 2, p. 1174; John Nicholas Brown, Urbanism in the American Colonies (Providence, RI, 1976), p. 5.

93. Cited by Bushman, Refinement of America, p. 142.

94. Reps, Tidewater Towns, p. 296; Kornwolf, Architecture and Town Planning, 2, pp. 1175-6.

95. John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The Economy of British America, 1607-1789 (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1985), p. 254.

96. Abbot, Colonial Origins, p. 45. For the headright system, see below, p. 55.

97. Alison Games, Migration and the Origins of the English Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA and London, 1999), pp. 52-3, and Virginia DeJohn Anderson, New England's Generation (Cambridge, 1991), p. 21, for the preponderance of family groups.

98. John Demos, A Little Commonwealth. Family Life in Plymouth Colony (London, Oxford, New York, 1970), p. 6.

99. The Journal of John Winthrop 1630-1649, ed. Richard S. Dunn, James Savage and Laetitia Yeandle (Cambridge, MA and London, 1996), p. 433.

100. See Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630-1641 (Cambridge, 1993).

101. Ibid., pp. 110-16.

102. Cited Anderson, New England's Generation, p. 38.

103. See Martin, Profits in the Wilderness.

104. Ibid., pp. 235 and 217-18. For the status and rights of vecinos in the Hispanic world, see Tamar Herzog, Defining Nations. Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America (New Haven and London, 2003), ch. 2. Also Maria Ines Carzolio, `En los origenes de la ciudadania en Castilla. La identidad politica del vecino durante los siglos XVI y XVII', Hispania, 62 (2002), pp. 637-91.

105. Martin, Profits in the Wilderness p. 79.

106. Cited ibid., p. 118.

107. Oliver A. Rink, Holland on the Hudson. An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York (Ithaca, NY and London, 1986); Meinig, Shaping of America, pp. 122-3.

108. See Douglas Greenberg, `The Middle Colonies in Recent American Historiography', WMQ, 3rd set., 36 (1979), pp. 396-427.

109. James T. Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country. A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore and London, 1972), ch. 2; Gary B. Nash, Race, Class and Politics. Essays on American Colonial and Revolutionary Society (Urbana, IL and Chicago, 1986), pp. 8-11.

110. Cited by Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York, 1992; repr. 1993), p. 128.

111. Magnus Morner, La corona espanola y los foraneos en los pueblos de indios de America (Stockholm, 1979), pp. 75-80.

112. For initial attitudes to the Indians, and English policy to the Indians in the first stages of colonization, see especially Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Settling with the Indians. The Meeting of English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580-1640 (Totowa, NJ, 1980), and Indians and English. Facing Off in Early America (Ithaca, NY, and London, 2000); Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier. Puritans and Indians 1620-1675 (1965; 3rd edn, Norman, OK and London, 1995); James Axtell, The Invasion Within. The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York and Oxford, 1985); Wesley Frank Craven, `Indian Policy in Early Virginia', and White, Red and Black. The Seventeenth-Century Virginian (Charlottesville, VA, 1971).

113. Craven, `Indian Policy'.

114. Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 107-9.

115. Bradford, Plymouth Plantation, p.-62._

116. Winthrop, journal, p. 416 (22 September 1642).

117. James Horn, Adapting to a New World (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1994), p. 128.

118. See Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA, 1956); Peter N. Carroll, Puritanism and the Wilderness (New York and London, 1969); John Canup, Out of the Wilderness. The Emergence of an American Identity in Colonial New England (Middletown, CT, 1990).

119. See under despoblado in Peter Boyd-Bowman, Lexico hispanoamericano del siglo XVI (London, 1971).

120. Fernando R. de la Flor, La peninsula metafisica. Arte, literatura y pensamiento en la Espana de la Contrarreforma (Madrid, 1999), pp. 130-54; D. A. Brading, Church and State in Bourbon Mexico. The Diocese of Michoacan (Cambridge, 1994), p. 29.

121. Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 50.

122. For a general survey of Spanish American frontiers, see Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History.

123. Noble David Cook, Born to Die. Disease and New World Conquest, 1492-1650 (Cambridge, 1998), p. 44.

124. OHBE, 1, p. 197.

125. For overseas European migration, especially to the Americas, in the Early Modern period, see in particular the essays assembled in Altman and Horn (eds), `To Make America', and Nicholas Canny (ed.), Europeans on the Move. For Spanish New World emigration, in addition to Altman, Emigrants and Society, previously cited, see Peter Boyd-Bowman, Indite geobiografico de cuarenta mil pobladores espanoles de America en el siglo XVI (2 vols, Bogota, 1964; Mexico City, 1968); Antonio Eiras Reel (ed.), La emigration espanola a Ultramar, 1492-1914 (Madrid, 1991); Auke P. Jacobs, Los movimientos entre Castilla e Hispanoamerica durante el reinado de Felipe III, 1598-1621 (Amsterdam, 1995). For British emigration, in addition to Anderson, New England's Generation, and Games, Migration and the Origins, previously cited, see Cressy, Coming Over, and Bernard Bailyn, The Peopling of British America. An Introduction (New York, 1986) and Voyagers to the West (New York, 1986).

126. Fredi Chiappelli (ed.), First Images of America (2 vols, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1976), 2, p. 753; Altman, Emigrants and Society; and, for seigneurial arrangements in the lands owned by the Order of Santiago in Extremadura, the pioneering article by Mario Gongora, `Regimen senorial y rural en la Extremadura de la Orden de Santiago en el momento de la emigration a Indias', jahrbuch fur Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft and Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas, 2 (1965), pp. 1-29.

127. Richard Konetzke, `La legislation sobre mmigracion de extranjeros en America durante el reinado de Carlos V', in Charles-Quint et son Temps (Colloques Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1959), pp. 93-108.

128. Jacobs, Los movimientos, p. 33.

129. Games, Migration and the Origins, pp. 18-20; Cressy, Coming Over, ch. 5.

130. Jacobs, Los movimientos, pp. 111-20.

131. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 37 and 54.

132. Ibid., p. 56.

133. Annie Molinie-Bertrand, An siecle d'or. L'Espagne et ses hommes (Paris, 1985), p. 307.

134. Altman, Emigrants and Society, pp. 189-91; Altman and Horn, To Make America', pp. 65-9. Of the emigrants from Andalusia in the seventeenth century, 36.8 per cent registered as `servants' (criados), but the figure needs to be treated with caution since registration as a servant was an easy way of obtaining a licence, and family members and friends may often have used this device. See Lourdes Diaz-Trechuelo, `La emigration familiar andaluza a America en el siglo XVII', in Eiras Reel (ed.), La emigration espanola, pp. 189-97.

135. Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, `The Population of Colonial Spanish America', CHLA, 1, pp. 15-16. But Jacobs, Los movimientos migratorios, pp. 5-9, argues that the figure should be reduced to 105,000, giving an annual average of 1,000 emigrants.

136. Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, p. 182.

137. Diaz-Trechuelo, `La emigracion familiar', p. 192.

138. Canny, Europeans on the Move, pp. 29-30.

139. of. Otte, Cartas privadas, and Lockhart and Otte (eds), Letters and People.

140. Jacobs, Los movimientos, p. 170.

141. Altman, Emigrants and Society, p. 248.

142. E. A. Wrigley People, Cities and Wealth (Oxford, 1987), pp. 215 and 179.

143. J. H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716 (1963; repr., London, 2002), p. 25, for land area (378,000 sq. kilometres); Bartolome Bennassar, Recherches sur les grandes epidemies dans le nord de I'Espagne a la fin du XVIe siecle (Paris, 1969), p. 62.

144. Canny, Europeans on the Move, p. 62.

145. New England's Plantation, in Peter Force, Tracts and other Papers Relating Principally to the Origin, Settlement and Progress of the Colonies in North America (4 vols, Washington, 1836-46), 1, no. 12, pp. 12-13.

146. Loren E. Pennington, `The Amerindian in English Promotional Literature 1575-1625', in Andrews et al., The Westward Enterprise, ch. 9.

147. Emerson (ed.), Letters from New England, p. 96.

148. Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 55-6.

149. See Cressy Coming Over, ch. 3, for Puritan foundation myths and their relation to reality.

150. Ibid., p. 68. Games, Migration and the Origins, p. 243, n. 5, estimates an appreciably higher figure, of 80,000 to 90,000, for the total number of migrants in the Great Migration.

151. Cressy, Coming Over, p. 109.

152. Abbot, Colonial Origins, p. 28.

153. For indentured service, see especially David Galenson, White Servitude in Colonial America (Cambridge, 1981).

154. Horn, Adapting to -a New World, p. 66.

155. Altman and Horn, `To Make America', p. 7.

156. Christine Daniels, "`Liberty to Complaine": Servant Petitions in Maryland, 1652-1797', in Christopher L. Tomlins and Bruce M. Mann (eds), The Many Legalities of Early America (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 2001), pp. 219-49.

157. Altman and Horn, `To Make America', pp. 7-8.

158. Galenson, White Servitude, p. 24.

159. Richard Archer, 'A New England Mosaic: a Demographic Analysis for the Seventeenth Century', WMQ, 3rd set., 47 (1990), pp. 477-502. See Table III for gender and family status.

160. For these figures and their social consequences, see Lorena S. Walsh, "`Till Death Us Do Part": Marriage and Family in Seventeenth-Century Maryland', and Lois Green Carr and Russell R. Menard, `Immigration and Opportunity: The Freedman in Early Colonial Maryland', in Tate and Ammerman (eds), The Chesapeake, essays 4 and 7.

161. Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 137-8.

162. Carr and Menard `Immigration and Opportunity', in Tate and Ammerman (eds), The Chesapeake, p. 209.

163. CHLA, 2, p. 17; Cressy, Coming Over, p. 70.

1. Samuel M. Wilson, `The Cultural Mosaic of the Indigenous Caribbean', in Warwick Bray (ed.), The Meeting of Two Worlds. Europe and the Americas 1492-1650 (Proceedings of the British Academy, 81, Oxford, 1993), pp. 37-66.

2. Columbus, journal, p. 135 (17 December 1492).

3. Fernandez de Oviedo, Historia general y natural, 1, p. 111.

4. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, p. 36.

5. Thomas, Conquest of Mexico, p. 172.

6. Smith, Works, 1, p. 150.

7. Smith, Works, 1, p. 216; James Axtell, Natives and Newcomers. The Cultural Origins of North America (Oxford, 2001), p. 71.

8. Diaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera, 2, p. 27 (chapter cxv).

9. For European reactions to human diversity, see especially Margaret T. Hodgen, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia, 1964; repr., 1971), chs 6 and 7.