Discourses and Selected Writings (41 page)

27.
A soldier in civilian dress… chains:
This probably refers to methods employed during the emperor Domitian’s reign of terror in the early 90s
ad
, when Epictetus was still in Rome.

1.
the universe:
‘The universe’ is equivalent to God in the Stoics’ pantheistic scheme; the general idea is paralleled at I 14, 1-5.

2.
Lycurgus the Spartan
: Lycurgus was the semi-legendary author of the Spartan constitution.

3.
the four basic elements… above downwards
: The Greek word translated here as ‘fire’ is
aitheˆ r
, recognized as a fifth element by Aristotle and other ancient writers. But Epictetus only mentions four elements, and in Stoic physics
aitheˆ r
was identified with fire. The sequence of change – earth to water to air to fire – was supposed to correspond to the order of the elements in the physical universe, one positioned above the other – fire, on top, being the substance of the sun and other stars. Thus Epictetus speaks of change ‘up’ and ‘down’, or (in the latter case) ‘from above downwards’.

4.
Attic Nights
: The
Attic Nights
of Aulus Gellius (
c
.130–80
AD
) is an anthology of learning that, fortunately for us, includes the following passage featuring Epictetus. Besides developing one of his best-known themes, it incidentally tells us that there were originally at least five (not four) books of Discourses.

5.
our wise man… any fear
: The ‘wise man’ is the Stoic sage who, by definition, believes that only vice is to be feared because it alone is bad (as virtue alone is good); second-order evils such as natural disasters are indifferent for him.

6.
Favorinus
: A Greek writer and orator of the second century
AD
.

7.
Against the Pagans
: Arnobius (died
c.
330
AD
) was a Church Father who argues in his sole surviving work,
Against the Pagans
, that Christianity is consistent with the best of Greek philosophy.

8.
Archelaus
: King of Macedon
c.
413–399
BC
.

9.
Polus performed Oedipus… wanderer
: Polus was a fourth-century
BC
Athenian actor; the reference in all probability is to the lead roles in Sophocles’
Oedipus the King
and
Oedipus at Colonus
.

10.
Odysseus… robe
: Odysseus goes disguised in rags in the central books of the
Odyssey
.

11.
it’s demeaning… one’s living
: The implication being that only the rich are of independent means.

12.
those gloomy philosophers
: A wry reference to the Stoics themselves.

13.
Women in Rome… without good reason
: I.e. it is hypocritical to try to enlist philosophers indefence of the most egregious vice (like adultery) when they actually advise against the least unconsidered act. Epictetus is in general right that Plato in his
Republic
eliminates traditional marriage, at least for the ruling class.

14.
Once, when he was preparing for lunch… Aricia:
The same anecdote, in a slightly different form, appears at I 1, 28-30; the town of Aricia, where Agrippinus had an estate, lay on his way to exile.

15.
as Xenophon says:
Xenophon,
Memorabilia
I 4, 7.

16.
The Meditations:
A work grounded in Stoicism and much indebted to Epictetus in particular, by the philosopher who also happened to be emperor of Rome (ruled 161-80
AD
).

1.
Restrict yourself… detachment:
To exercise choice and (its opposite) refusal with ‘detachment’ means with an awareness that success in either case is not ours to guarantee.

2.
It is equally naive… something different:
I.e. because vice, like virtue, depends on the free choice of the agent (the slave), not on the will of his master.

3.
Diogenes, Heraclitus:
Diogenes is Diogenes the Cynic, whom Epictetus often cites with approval. Heraclitus was a Greek philosopher of the fifth century
BC
for whom Stoics had a special regard; cf. Marcus Aurelius,
Meditations
VIII 3: ‘Alexander and Caesar and Pompey, what are they compared with Diogenes and Heraclitus and Socrates?’

4.
But the assignment of roles belongs to another:
Cf. I 25, 13.

5.
If you hear a raven croak inauspiciously:
An allusion to the ancient belief in bird augury, a form of divination.

6.
Make use of divination… should be used:
One version of Socrates’ views on divination is recorded in Xenophon’s
Memorabilia,
I 1, 6 sq.

7.
Just as the propositions… conjunctive ones:
I.e. the disjunctive proposition ‘Either it is day
or
it is night’ is always true at any one time, whereas the conjunctive proposition ‘Both it is day
and
it is night’ is false at any moment.

8.
As you are careful… at the same time:
E.g. by ‘strutting’ or otherwise walking in an inappropriate manner, or engaging in undignified thoughts or daydreams.

9.
Don’t embrace marble statues:
Outdoors, naked, in cold weather: a bizarre and showy kind of austerity practised by Diogenes and other Cynics.

10.
And I will follow… God’s ways:
The quotation is from an unknown play by Euripides.