Darwin Among the Machines (47 page)

34
.
Ware, interview.

35
.
Burks, interview.

36
.
Bigelow, “Computer Development,” 304.

37
.
Ibid., 307.

38
.
Ibid., 297.

39
.
Ibid., 308.

40
.
Ibid., 306.

41
.
William F. Gunning,
Rand's Digital Computer Effort
, Rand Corporation Memorandum P-363, 23 February 1953, 4.

42
.
Richard W. Hamming, “The History of Computing in the United States,” in Dalton Tarwater, ed.,
The Bicentennial Tribute to American Mathematics, 1776–1976
(Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America, 1977), 119.

43
.
Martin Schwarzschild, interview by William Aspray, 18 November 1986, OH 124, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

44
.
Edmund C. Berkeley,
Giant Brains
(New York: John Wiley, 1949), 5.

45
.
John von Neumann, 1948, “The General and Logical Theory of Automata,” in Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed.,
Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium
(New York: Hafner, 1951), 31.

46
.
Stanislaw Ulam,
Adventures of a Mathematician
(New York: Scribner's, 1976), 242.

47
.
John von Neumann, 1948, response to W. S. McCulloch's paper “Why the Mind Is in the Head,” Hixon Symposium, September 1948, in Jeffress,
Cerebral Mechanisms
, 109–111.

48
.
John von Neumann to Oswald Veblen, memorandum, 26 March 1945, “On the Use of Variational Methods in Hydrodynamics,” reprinted in John von Neumann,
Theory of Games, Astrophysics, Hydrodynamics and Meteorology
, vol. 6 of
Collected Works
, ed. Abraham Taub (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 357.

1
.
Marvin Minsky, 1971, in Carl Sagan, ed.,
Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence
, Proceedings of the Conference held at the Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory, Yerevan, USSR, 5–11 September 1971 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973), 328.

2
.
Julian Bigelow, “Computer Development at the Institute for Advanced Study,” in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds.,
A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century
(New York: Academic Press, 1980), 308.

3
.
Konstantin S. Merezhkovsky,
Theory of Two Plasms as the Basis of Symbiogenesis: A New Study on the Origin of Organisms
(in Russian) (Kazan: Publishing Office of the Imperial Kazan University, 1909); Boris M. Kozo-Polyansky,
A New Principle of Biology: Essay on the Theory of Symbiogenesis
(in Russian) (Moscow, 1924). The theory is most accessible in English in Liya N. Khakhina's
Concepts of Symbiogenesis: A Historical and Critical Study of the Research of Russian Botanists
, trans. Stephanie Merkel, ed. Lynn Margulis and Mark McMenamin (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).

4
.
Merezhkovsky,
Theory of Two Plasms
, 8; after Khakina,
Symbiogenesis
, ii.

5
.
Edmund B. Wilson,
The Cell in Development and Heredity
, 3d ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1925), 738.

6
.
Nils A. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,”
Acta Biotheoretica
16 (1962): 94.

7
.
Nils A. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,”
Acta Biotheoretica
16 (1962): 122.

8
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 70.

9
.
James Pomerene, interview by Nancy Stern, 26 September 1980, OH 31, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

10
.
Nils A. Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes Realized by Artificial Methods,”
Methodos
9, nos. 35–36 (1957): 152.

11
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 72.

12
.
Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes,” 169.

13
.
Ibid., 164.

14
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 70.

15
.
Ibid., 76.

16
.
Nils A. Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories,”
Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation
1 (1972): 123–124.

17
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 94.

18
.
Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes,” 159.

19
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 89.

20
.
Ibid., 69, 99.

21
.
Ibid., 94.

22
.
Ibid., 73.

23
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 100.

24
.
Ibid., 116.

25
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 122.

26
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 100.

27
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 1,” 126.

28
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 117.

29
.
A. G. Cairns-Smith,
Seven Clues to the Origin of Life
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 106.

30
.
Tor Gulliksen, personal communication, 22 November 1995.

31
.
Ibid.

32
.
Simen Gaure, personal communication, 23 November 1995.

33
.
Nils Barricelli, in Paul S. Moorhead and Martin M. Kaplan, eds.,
Mathematical Challenges to the Neo-Darwinian Interpretation of Evolution
, A Symposium Held at the Wistar Institute, April 25–26, 1966 (Philadelphia: Wistar Institute, 1967), 64.

34
.
Gaure, personal communication.

35
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories: Part 2,” 101.

36
.
John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s—Some Personal Impressions,” in Metropolis, Howlett, and Rota,
History of Computing
, 127.

37
.
Data in this paragraph are from Montgomery Phister, Jr.,
Data Processing Technology and Economics
, 2d ed. (Bedford, Mass.: Digital Press, 1979), 19, 26, 27, 215, 277, 531, 611.

38
.
Nils A. Barricelli, “The Functioning of Intelligence Mechanisms Directing Biologic Evolution,”
Theoretic Papers
3, no. 7 (1985): 126.

39
.
Maurice Wilkes,
Memories of a Computer Pioneer
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 145.

40
.
Barricelli, “Symbiogenetic Evolution Processes,” 147.

41
.
Thomas Ray, “Evolution, Complexity, Entropy, and Artificial Reality,” preprint submitted to
Physica D
(20 August 1993): 2.

42
.
Thomas Ray, “How I Created Life in a Virtual Universe” (unpublished preprint, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Delaware, 29 March 1992), 5–6.

43
.
Ibid., 6.

44
.
Thomas Ray, “An Evolutionary Approach to Synthetic Biology: Zen and the Art of Creating Life,” preprint submitted to
Artificial Life
1, no. 1 (21 October 1993): 5.

45
.
Thomas Ray, “A Proposal to Create a Network-Wide Biodiversity Reserve for Digital Organisms,” preprint, ATR Human Information Processing Research Laboratories, Kyoto, Japan (2 March 1994), 2.

46
.
Thomas Ray and Kurt Thearling, “Evolving Multi-cellular Artificial Life,” preprint submitted to
Proceedings of Artificial Life IV
(July 1994): 6.

47
.
Ray, “Proposal,” 6.

48
.
Ibid., 5–6.

49
.
Ray, “Synthetic Biology,” 29.

50
.
Thomas Ray, “Security,” unpublished memo, 1 August 1995.

51
.
Barricelli, “Numerical Testing of Evolution Theories,” 126.

52
.
Nils Barricelli, “Genetic Language, Its Origins and Evolution,”
Theoretic Papers
4, no. 6 (1986): 106–107.

53
.
Nils A. Barricelli, “On the Origin and Evolution of the Genetic Code: 2. Origin of the Genetic Code as a Primordial Collector Language; The Pairing-Release Hypothesis,”
BioSystems
11 (1979): 19, 21.

54
.
Martin Davis, “Influences of Mathematical Logic on Computer Science,” in Rolf Herken, ed.,
The Universal Turing Machine: A Half-century Survey
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 315.

55
.
Alan Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,”
Mind
59 (October 1950): 456.

1
.
W. Daniel Hillis, “New Computer Architectures and Their Relationship to Physics, or Why Computer Science Is No Good,”
International Journal of Theoretical Physics
21, nos. 3–4 (April 1982): 257.

2
.
Aeschylus,
Agamemnon
, lines 280–316, trans, and ed. Eduard Frankel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), 109–111.

3
.
Polybius,
The Histories
, book 10, 45.6–12, trans. W. R. Paton (London: William Heinemann, 1925), 213–214.

4
.
John Wilkins,
Mercury; or, the Secret and Swift messenger: Shewing, How a Man may with Privacy and Speed communicate his Thoughts to a friend at any distance
(London: John Maynard, 1641), 88.

5
.
Ibid., 137.

6
.
Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson,
The Early History of Data Networks
(Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1995), 24.

7
.
Robert Hooke, 21 May 1684, “Discourse Shewing a Way how to communicate one's Mind at great Distances,” in W. Derham, ed.,
Philosophical Experiments and Observations of the late Eminent Dr. Robert Hooke
(London: W. Derham, 1726), 142–143.

8
.
Richard Waller, “The Life of Dr. Robert Hooke,” introduction to
The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, containing his Cutlerian lectures, and other discourses
(London: Richard Waller, 1705), xxvii.

9
.
John Aubrey, in
Aubrey's Brief Lives: Edited from the Original Manuscripts with a Life of John Aubrey by Oliver Lawson Dick
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949), 165.

10
.
Samuel Pepys, 15 February 1664, in
Diary and Correspondence of Samuel Pepys, F.R.S. . . . Deciphered by Rev. J. Smith, A. M. from the original shorthand MS
, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: John D. Morris, 1890), 211.

11
.
Waller, “Hooke,” ix.

12
.
Ibid., xiii.

13
.
Robert Hooke, 7 May 1673, in R T. Gunther,
Early Science in Oxford
, vol. 7 (Oxford: printed for the author, 1930), 412.

14
.
Waller, “Hooke,” vii.

15
.
Aubrey,
Brief Lives
, 167.

16
.
Letter from Hooke to Boyle, 3 July 1663, in Gunther,
Early Science
, vol. 6, 139.

17
.
Hooke,
Posthumous Works
, 140.

18
.
Ibid., 144.

19
.
Journal of the Royal Society, 17 February 1664; in Gunther,
Early Science
, vol. 6, 170.

20
.
Journal of the Royal Society, 29 February 1672; in Gunther,
Early Science
, vol. 7, 394.

21
.
Journal of the Royal Society, 7 March 1672; in Gunther,
Early Science
, vol. 7, 394.

22
.
Hooke, “Discourse,” 147.

23
.
Ibid.

24
.
Ibid., 146–147.

25
.
Holzmann and Pehrson,
Data Networks
, 38.

26
.
Hooke, “Discourse,” 148.

27
.
Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson, “The First Data Networks,”
Scientific American
270, no. 1 (January 1994): 129.

28
.
Abbé Jean Antoine Nollet,
Essai sur l'électricité des corps
(Paris: Frères Guerin, 1746), 135; second quotation in Park Benjamin,
A History of Electricity (The Intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin
(New York: John Wiley, 1898), 534.

29
.
[C.M.], “An expeditious method for conveying intelligence,”
Scots' Magazine
15 (17 February 1745): 73; reprinted in John J. Fahie,
A History of Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837, chiefly compiled from original sources, and hitherto unpublished documents
(London: E. & F. Spon, 1884), 68–71.