Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (332 page)

A late Horizon cultural grouping centred on its capital at Cuzco, Peru, which in the early 15th century
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began expanding outwards through conquest and alliance to form the Inca empire. At its peak in the early 16th century, this empire stretched from northern Ecuador to south-central Chile, a distance of more than 4000km.
The period of Inca expansion began around ad 1410 under the semi-mythical emperor, or Sapa Inca, Viracocha, and was continued by his son Yupanqui (who assumed the name Pachakuti or ‘Cataclysm’ ), who defeated a series of neighbouring rival states and kingdoms including the Chanca, the Colla, and the Lupaqa. Pachakuti's son Topa defeated the Chimu in ad 1463, thereby removing the last serious obstacle to Inca dominance of the Andes. Topa became emperor in ad 1471 and proceeded to enlarge the Inca domain still further. Topa's successor Huayna Capac took more territory in the upper Amazon region and built a second capital at Quito.
The Inca empire was called ‘Tawantinsuyu’ by the Inca people, meaning the land of the four quarters. Each quarter was a large province which radiated out from Cuzco. The four provinces (Antisuyu, Collasuyu, Chinchasuyu, and Cuntisuyu) were each sub-divided into smaller regions, the boundaries of which broadly followed those of the conquered kingdoms.
At the head of the empire was the Sapa Inca who was believed to be descended from the sun god Inti. When a Sapa Inca died his body was mummified and thereafter became the focus of a cult. High-ranking officials in the Inca empire were recruited from royal lineages. Although the Incas generally left the social and political hierarchy of conquered kingdoms in place they required the rulers' sons to go to Cuzco to learn the Inca language, Quechua. Surprisingly, this was only a spoken language as the Inca did not use writing.
Sacred objects from conquered provinces were also taken to Cuzco to reside in the temple of the sun god or in some specially constructed shrine.
Over 30000km of paved roads linked Cuzco with the provincial centres, facilitating the movement of troops and the transportation of luxury goods. It has been estimated that there were between six and twelve million subjects within the Inca empire, so administration was a major task.
Agricultural land was divided into three divisions: that belonging to the temples, to the state (i.e. Sapa Inca), and to the landowning commoners known as
aylluses
. Every
ayllus
had to spend time working on the state-owned land and temple land as labour tribute or
mita
. Food produced for the state was kept in great storehouses and used to feed the army, officials, and those engaged on state projects. The main crops were potatoes, maize, and other grain crops. Specialist craftsmen produced ceramics and metalwork. All luxury goods were produced and distributed by the state.
The Inca did not build cities. The population was essentially rural with numerous small villages and towns housing less than 1000 people. The capital, Cuzco, was occupied only by members of the Sapa Inca's court and priests. The architecture of Inca centres is impressive, as is the quality of the building work done.
The Inca empire came to an end in the mid 16th century. Internecine strife and a civil war between Atahuallpa and Huascar, the sons of Huayna Capac, between ad 1525 and 1532 weakened the empire considerably. Atahuallpa won the civil war but within weeks was captured at Cajamarca by a party of just 168 Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro , and within a year Cuzco and the whole empire had been taken over by the Spanish.

 
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Stone or ceramic vessel of various shapes and sizes in which resins and other materials were slowly burnt in order to give off smoke and fumes, usually for ritual or ceremonial purposes. In Mesoamerica incense burning was wide-spread from the Formative Stage through into the Classic. Pine resin, the Maya word for which is ‘copal’, was widely traded as incense.

 
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General term for miniature cups or accessory vessels found in early Bronze Age (
WESSEX
II) graves in southern England. There are various types, including
ALDBOURNE CUPS
,
GRAPE CUPS
, and
SLASHED CUPS
. The name was fancifully given in the 19th century; the actual function of the cups is not known.

 
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A Roman legionary fort established in the Tay Valley of eastern Scotland, extensively excavated by Shephard Frere between 1952 and 1965. Built by Agricola during his northern campaigns during the early 80s
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, the fort covers about 20ha and was constructed mainly of earth and timber. The internal buildings include 64 barrack blocks, a commandant's house, officers' quarters, and a hospital. About ad 87 the fort was systematically dismantled as part of a calculated withdrawal from the region. Many of the contents of the fort were broken and buried in pits. One pit contained more than a million used nails.
[Rep.: L. Pitts and S. Frere , 1985,
Inchtuthill: the Roman legionary fortress excavations 1952–65
. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies]

 
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A method of ornamenting ceramic vessels by cutting the soft clay walls with a sharp instrument such as a pointed stick, knife blade, or piece of flint.

 
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