Collins Cobuild English Grammar (63 page)

2.295
  You can refer to something or someone that should or can have something done to them by using a clause containing a
to
-infinitive after a noun or indefinite pronoun.

I make notes in the back of my diary of things
to be mended or replaced
.
…when I’ve had something
to eat
.

You can also use a clause consisting of a
to
-infinitive followed by a preposition.

There wasn’t even a chair
to sit on
.
He had nothing
to write with
.

2.296
  You can also use a
to
-infinitive clause when you want to say that you are talking about, for example, the first, oldest, or only person who did something.

…the first woman
to be elected to the council
.

2.297
  A clause containing a
to
-infinitive is used after some abstract nouns to show what action they relate to.

…people who didn’t have the opportunity
to go to university
.

USAGE NOTE

2.298
  Many of these nouns are related to verbs or adjectives that are also often followed by
to
-infinitive clauses. For example, a
to
-infinitive clause is used after both the verb
need
and the noun
need
, and after both the adjective
able
and the related noun
ability
.

I
need to borrow
five thousand dollars.
…the
need to preserve
secrecy about their intentions.
It
failed to grow
.

2.299
  Here is a list of nouns that usually or often have a
to
-infinitive clause after them:

ability

attempt

bid

chance

compulsion

desire

disinclination

failure

inability

inclination

need

opportunity

readiness

reason

refusal

unwillingness

urge

way

willingness

nouns followed by
-ed
participle clauses

2.300
  A clause containing an
-ed
participle can be used directly after a noun to show that something has been produced or affected by an action.

…a girl
called Patricia
.
…dresses
made of paper
.
…two of the problems
mentioned above
.
…a story
written by a nine-year-old girl
.

nouns followed by
-ing
participle clauses

2.301
  A clause containing an
-ing
participle can be used directly after a noun to show that someone or something is doing something.

He gestured towards the three cards
lying on the table
.
…a wicker shopping-basket
containing groceries
.

with an identifying noun phrase

2.302
  You can give further information about someone or something by using a noun phrase that describes them or identifies them.

If you put this noun phrase after the main noun phrase, a comma is almost always put after the main noun phrase because the second noun phrase is separate from it, not part of it.

…the bald eagle,
the symbol of America
.
…David Beckham,
a first-class football player
.
Her mother,
a Canadian
, died when she was six.

If you put this noun phrase before the main noun phrase, you can sometimes choose whether to use a comma to separate the two noun phrases or not.

…
Joan’s husband
, Jim Inglis.
…
my husband
George.

3        Making a message: types of verb

3.1
      When you make a statement, you use a
clause
. A clause that is used to make a statement contains a
noun phrase
, which refers to the person or thing that you are talking about, and a
verb phrase
, which shows what sort of action, process, or state you are talking about.

The noun phrase, which usually comes in front of the verb, is called the
subject
of the verb or the clause. For example, in the clause
Ellen laughed
,
Ellen
is the subject. The formation of noun phrases is explained in
Chapters 1
and
2
.

A verb phrase used in a statement has a particular form, and shows agreement with number and person. The formation of verb phrases is explained in the Reference Section. Quite often in statements the verb phrase is a single word, and it is quite common to talk about the
verb
of a clause.

This chapter deals mainly with the use of verbs in
active
clauses, where the subject is the performer of an action rather than the person or thing affected by an action. The use of verbs in
passive
clauses, where the subject is the person or thing affected, is explained in paragraphs
9.8
to
9.24
.

Showing who is involved

intransitive verbs

3.2
      If an action or event involves only one person or thing, you mention only the performer of the action (the subject) and the action (the verb).

The girl screamed.
I waited.
An awful thing has happened.

Verbs like this are called
intransitive verbs
.

However, you can then mention another person or thing that is involved using a
prepositional phrase
.

She walked
across the street
.

Intransitive verbs are explained in paragraphs
3.8
to
3.13
.

transitive verbs

3.3
      If the action or event involves another person or thing that the action affects, relates to, or produces, you put a noun phrase referring to them after the verb. This is called the
object
of the verb. If it is necessary to distinguish it from other objects, it is called the
direct object
.

He closed
the door
.
I hate
sport
.
Some of the women noticed
me
.

Verbs like this are called
transitive verbs
. Transitive verbs are explained in paragraphs
3.14
to
3.25
.

Reflexive verbs
and
delexical verbs
are special kinds of transitive verbs. They are explained in paragraphs
3.26
to
3.31
and
3.32
to
3.45
.

intransitive or transitive verbs

3.4
      The majority of verbs in English give you the option of presenting an event either as involving the subject only, or as involving the subject and someone or something else as a direct object.

She
paints
by holding the brush in her teeth.
Yarkov
paints vivid portraits of friends and acquaintances
.
Gus asked me whether I’d like to have dinner with him. I
accepted
.
I
accepted the invitation
.

This means that most verbs can be used with or without an object. Verbs that can be used like this are explained in paragraphs
3.46
to
3.54
.

With some verbs, the thing affected by the action can be put as the object of the verb or as the object of a preposition after the verb. These verbs are explained in paragraphs
3.55
to
3.58
.

Ergative verbs
are a special kind of verb that can be used with or without an object. They are explained in paragraphs
3.59
to
3.67
.

reciprocal verbs

3.5
      
Reciprocal verbs
refer to actions that involve people affecting each other in the same way with the same action. There are two types of
reciprocal verb
. One type is used either with or without an object.

We
met
at Hargreaves’ place.
I
had met him
in Zermatt.

The other type is used without an object, and with or without a prepositional phrase mentioning one of the participants.

We
argued
over this question for a long time.
I
argued with this man
for half an hour.

Reciprocal verbs are explained in paragraphs
3.68
to
3.72
.

verbs with two objects

3.6
      Some transitive verbs also allow you to mention a person who benefits from an action or receives something as a result. The verb is then followed by both a direct object and an
indirect object
.

Hand
me my bag
.
His uncle had given
him books on India
.
She sends
you her love
.
She passed
him his cup
.

Verbs that can take an indirect object as well as a direct object are explained in paragraphs
3.73
to
3.82
.

phrasal verbs, compound verbs

3.7
      Some verbs have two or three parts. These are
phrasal verbs
and
compound verbs
. Phrasal verbs are explained in paragraphs
3.83
to
3.116
, and compound verbs are explained in paragraphs
3.117
to
3.125
.

Intransitive verbs: talking about events that involve only the subject