Collins Cobuild English Grammar (157 page)

Some clauses simply add extra information. These are called
non-defining clauses
. They are dealt with in paragraphs
8.132
to
8.143
. These clauses are often used in writing, but are not usually used in spoken English.

Others are used to distinguish a noun from all other possibilities. These are called
defining clauses
. They are dealt with in paragraphs
8.144
and
8.145
. These clauses are occasionally used in both written and spoken English.

position of non-defining clauses

8.131
    Non-defining clauses can go in front of a main clause, after a main clause, or in the middle of one. A non-defining clause is usually separated by a comma from the words in front of it and after it.

Using non-defining clauses

8.132
    Non-defining clauses give further information that is not needed to identify the person, thing, or group you are talking about.

The following paragraphs
8.133
to
8.138
explain how these clauses are used when they relate to the
subject
of the verb in a main clause. The subject is not mentioned in the non-defining clause.

-ing
participle: events happening at the same time

8.133
    If you want to say that someone is doing or experiencing two things at the same time, you mention one of them in the main clause and the other in a clause containing an
-ing
participle.

Laughing and shrieking
, the crowd rushed under the nearest trees.
Jane watched,
weeping
, from the doorway.
Feeling a little foolish
, Pluskat hung up.
Walking about
, you notice something is different.
People stared at her.
Seeing herself in a shop window
, she could understand why.

BE CAREFUL

Note that the
-ing
participle should always describe an action performed by the subject of the main part of the sentence. So, for example, you should not say
Going to school, it started to rain
. Instead, you should say
Going to school, I noticed that it had started to rain
.

-ing
participle: one action after another

8.134
    If you want to say that someone did one thing immediately after another, you mention the first action in a clause containing an
-ing
participle and the second one in the main clause.

Leaping out of bed
, he dressed so quickly that he put his boots on the wrong feet.

-ing
participle: reasons

8.135
    If you want to explain why someone does something or why something happens, you say what happens in the main clause and give the reason in a clause containing an
-ing
participle.

At one point I decided to go and talk to Uncle Sam. Then I changed my mind,
realising that he could do nothing to help
.
The puppy would probably not live to grow up,
being a tiny, weak little thing
.

8.136
    You can also use an
-ing
participle directly after a verb in a sentence such as
I stood shivering at the roadside
. This use is explained in paragraphs
3.189
to
3.201
.

having
and
-ed
participle: results

8.137
    If you want to say that someone did or experienced one thing before another, you mention the first thing in a clause containing
having
and an
-ed
participle. Often this kind of construction shows that the second event was a result of the first one.

I did not feel terribly shocked,
having expected him to take the easiest way out
.
Having admitted he was wrong
, my husband suddenly fell silent.

-ed
participle: earlier events

8.138
    If you want to say what happened to someone or something before a situation or event described in the main clause, you say what happened in a clause containing an
-ed
participle on its own.

Angered by the policies of the union
, she wrote a letter to the General Secretary.

mentioning the subject

8.139
    Sometimes you want to use a non-defining clause that has a different subject from the subject of the main clause. These clauses are explained in the following paragraphs
8.140
to
8.143
.

8.140
    In this kind of non-defining clause, you usually have to mention the subject.

Jack being gone
, Stephen opened his second letter.

However, if the non-defining clause comes after the main clause, and it is clear from the context that it relates to the object of the main clause, you do not need to mention the object again.

They picked me up,
kicking and screaming
, and carried me up to the road.

-ing
participle

8.141
    You use a non-defining clause containing a subject and an
-ing
participle:

when you want to mention something that is happening at the same time as the event or situation described in the main clause

The embarrassed young man stared at me,
his face reddening
.

when you want to mention a fact that is relevant to the fact stated in the main clause.

Bats are surprisingly long-lived creatures,
some having a life-expectancy of around twenty years
.

With
is sometimes added at the beginning of the non-finite clause.

The old man stood up
with tears running down his face
.

-ed
participle

8.142
    You use
having
and an
-ed
participle to mention something that happened before the thing described in the main clause.

The argument having finished
, Mr Lucas was ready to leave.
George having gone to bed
, Mick had started watching a movie.
The question having been asked
, he had to deal with it.

You use an
-ed
participle on its own to say that something was done or completed before the event or situation described in the main clause.

He proceeded to light his pipe.
That done
, he put on his woollen scarf and went out.

USAGE NOTE

8.143
    In a negative non-defining clause, you put
not
in front of the participle, or in front of
having
.

He paused,
not wishing to boast
.
He didn’t recognize her at first,
not having seen her for fifteen years or so
.
He began to shout,
their reply not having come as quickly as he wanted
.

Using defining clauses

8.144
    
Defining non-finite clauses
explain which person or thing you are talking about. They are always placed after the noun in a noun phrase.

The old lady
driving the horse
was dressed in black.
The bus
carrying the musicians
arrived just before noon.

use after pronouns

8.145
    Defining clauses can be used after indefinite pronouns such as
anyone
.

Anyone
following this advice
could get in trouble.
Ask anybody
nearing the age of retirement
what they think.

Other structures used like non-finite clauses

8.146
    Phrases that do not contain a verb are sometimes used in writing in a similar way to non-finite clauses.