Collins Cobuild English Grammar (101 page)

4.141
  You can also use the preposition
before
to indicate when a situation ends.

Before 1716
Cheltenham had been a small market town.

start and end times

4.142
  The duration of a situation or event can be shown by saying when it begins and when it ends. You can use
from
to show when it begins and
to
,
till
, or
until
to show when it ends.

The Blitz on London began with nightly bombings
from 7 September to 2 November
.
They are active in the line
from about January until October
.
They seem to be working
from dawn till dusk
.

You can also use
between
and
and
instead of
from
and
to
.

The car is usually in the garage
between Sunday and Thursday
in winter.

In American English,
through
is often placed between the two times:

The chat show goes out
midnight through six a.m
.

If you are using figures to refer to two times or years, you can separate them with a dash, instead of using
from
and
to
.

…open
10–5
weekdays,
10–6
Saturdays and
2–6
Sundays.

Using time expressions to modify nouns

4.143
  You can also use time expressions involving a
cardinal number
and a general time word to modify nouns. Note that an apostrophe is added to the time word.

Four of those were sentenced to
15 days’ detention
.
They want to take on staff with
two years’ experience
.

This use of cardinal numbers is described in paragraph
2.231
.

4.144
  Time expressions are also used as
compound adjectives
to modify countable nouns.

They all have to start off with a
six-month course
in German.
I arrived at the University for a
three-month stint
as a visiting lecturer.

Compound adjectives are explained in paragraphs
2.94
to
2.102
.

5 Varying the message: modals, negatives, and ways of forming sentences

5.1
      This chapter deals with three different ways in which the meaning of a sentence can be varied, by altering the order of words or by adding other words to the verb phrase.

Paragraphs
5.2
to
5.46
explain how to form statements, questions, orders, and suggestions.

Paragraphs
5.47
to
5.91
explain how
negative words
are used to talk about the opposite of something or the absence of something.

Paragraphs
5.92
to
5.256
explain how
modals
are used to talk about possibility, or to show the attitude of the speaker.

Statements, questions, orders, and suggestions

5.2
      Sentences are used to do many different things.

The most common use is to give information.

I went to Glasgow University.
Carol was one of my sister’s best friends.

Sometimes you use a sentence to obtain information, rather than to give it.

Where is my father?
What did you say to Myra?
How long have you been out of this country?

At other times you want to express an opinion, give an order, make a suggestion, or make a promise.

That’s an excellent idea.
Go away, all of you.
Shall we listen to the news?
If you have any questions, I’ll do my best to answer them.

When someone says or writes a sentence, they need to show what they are trying to do with it, so that it will be clear, for example, that they are asking a question and not making a statement.

word order

5.3
      Often it is the order of words that indicates which way a sentence is being used. For example, if you say
He is Norwegian
, the word order makes it clear that you are making a statement. If you say
Is he Norwegian
?, the word order indicates that you are asking a question.

Another way of showing which way a sentence is being used is to begin it with a verb, rather than with the subject. For example, if you say
Give this book to Michael
, it is clear that you are giving an order or instruction, rather than making a statement or asking a question.

statements, questions, and orders

5.4
      There are three main ways of showing what type of sentence is being used in English. These sentence-types are used for forming statements, questions, and orders.

The
declarative
form is used in most main clauses. Statements are almost always made using the declarative form. When a clause is in the declarative, the subject is placed in front of the verb.

The declarative is sometimes called the
indicative
.

I want
to talk to Mr Castle.
Gertrude looked
at Anne.
We’ll give
you fifteen pounds now.

The
interrogative
form is usually used in questions. In clauses, the subject is often placed after the main verb or after an auxiliary verb.

Is she
very upset?
Where
is my father
?
Have you
met Harry?
Did you
give him my letter?

The
imperative
is used to try to direct someone’s actions. In clauses, the subject is usually omitted and the
base form
of the verb is used.

Come back
this minute.
Show
me the complete manuscript.

There is a fourth form called the
subjunctive
. This is a feature of English verbs that sometimes occurs in subordinate clauses. The subjunctive is not used to distinguish between different uses of language, and is therefore not dealt with in this chapter. Clauses in which the subjunctive occurs are explained in paragraphs
7.43
,
8.41
, and
8.48
.

5.5
      The ways in which these different structures are used are explained in the following paragraphs.

Paragraphs
5.6
to
5.9
explain how the declarative is used to make statements. Paragraphs
5.10
to
5.34
explain how the interrogative is used to ask questions. Paragraphs
5.35
to
5.39
explain how the imperative is used to try to direct someone’s actions.

Other uses of the declarative, interrogative, and imperative are explained in paragraphs
5.40
to
5.46
.

Making statements: the declarative form

giving information

5.6
      When you are giving information, you use the
declarative
form.

We ate dinner at six.
I like reading poetry.
Officials have refused to comment.

expressing opinions

5.7
      When you are expressing an opinion, you usually use the declarative form.

I think she is a brilliant writer.
It’s a good thing Father is deaf.
He ought to have let me know he was going out.

making promises

5.8
      When you make a promise, you use the declarative form.

I shall do everything I can to help you.
I’ll have it sent down by special delivery.

emphasis

5.9
      You can emphasize a statement by putting
do
,
does
, or
did
in front of the
base form
of the verb.

I
do feel
sorry for Roger.
A little knowledge
does seem
to be a dangerous thing.
He had no time to spend time with his family, but he
did bring
home a regular salary.

Asking questions: the interrogative form

5.10
    When you ask a question, you usually use the
interrogative
form.

types of question

5.11
    There are two main types of question.

Questions that can be answered by
yes
or
no
are called
yes/no
-questions.

‘Is he your only child?’ – ‘Yes.’
‘Are you planning to marry soon?’ – ‘No.’
‘Can I help you?’ – ‘Yes, I’d like to book a single room, please.’
‘Are you interested in racing?’ – ‘Yes, I love it.’
‘Are you a singer as well as an actress?’ – ‘No, I’m not a singer at all.’
‘Do you like it?’ – ‘Yes, I really like it.’

The actual answer to a
yes/no
-question is not always
yes
or
no
. For example, if you ask someone
Do you read in bed
?, they might say
Sometimes
or
Never
. If you say to someone
Do you like jazz
?, they might say
I think it’s great
. But the questions
Do you read in bed
? and
Do you like jazz
? are still
yes/no
-questions, because
yes
and
no
are the type of answers the questioner expects.
Sometimes
will be interpreted as a weak
yes
answer,
never
as a strong
no
answer, and
I think it’s great
as a strong
yes
answer.

Yes/no
-questions are fully explained in paragraphs
5.12
to
5.20
.

The other main type of question begins with a
wh
-word such as
what
,
where
, or
when
. When you ask a question of this type, the answer cannot be
yes
or
no
.

‘Who gave you my number?’ – ‘Your mother did.’ ‘Why didn’t you ask me?’ – ‘I was afraid to.’ ‘Where is he now?’ – ‘He’s at university.’

This type of question is called a
wh
-question. When
wh
-words are used as pronouns or adverbs at the beginning of a
wh
-question, they are called
interrogative pronouns
or
interrogative adverbs
.

Wh
-questions are explained in paragraphs
5.21
to
5.34
.

Yes/no
-questions

position of auxiliary verbs