Can We Talk about Race?: And Other Conversations in an Era of School Resegregation (19 page)

27
. john a. powell, “True Integration,” in
School Resegregation
, ed. Boger and Orfield, 284.

28
. As cited in Clotfelter,
After Brown
, 181.

29
. Ibid., 192.

30
. Boger and Orfield, ed.,
School Resegregation
, 20.

31
. Ibid., 314.

32
. Marilyn Cochran-Smith,
Walking the Road: Race, Diversity, and Social Justice in Teacher Education
(New York: Teachers College Press), 7.

33
. Boger and Orfield, ed.,
School Resegregation
, 314.

34
. For an extended discussion of the legal status of race-conscious policies in K–12 public schools, see Jacinta S. Ma and Michal Kurlander, “The Future of Race-Conscious Policies in K–12 Public Schools,” in
School Resegregation
, ed. Boger and Orfield, 239–60.

35
. Maria Sacchetti, “Concerns Raised about Recruiting,” Boston Globe, August 23, 2005.

36
.
Grutter v. Bollinger
, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).

37
.
Gratz v. Bollinger
, 539 U.S. 244 (2003).

38
. Ma and Kurlander, “The Future of Race-Conscious Policies,” 247.

39
. One amicus brief of social science research, developed by researchers at the Harvard Civil Rights Project, was signed by 553 scholars, representing 201 institutions and forty-two states and the District of Columbia (
www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu/research/deseg/amicus_parents_v_seatle.pdf
).

40
. Susan Leigh Flinspach and Karen E. Banks, “Moving Beyond Race: Socioeconomic Diversity as a Race-Neutral Approach to Desegregation in the Wake County Schools,” in
School Resegregation
, ed. Boger and Orfield, 261–80.

41
.
Discrimination in Metropolitan Housing Markets: National Results from Phase 1, Phase 2, and Phase 3 of the Housing Discrimination Study (HDS)
,
www.huduser.org/publications/hsgfin/hds.9780807032831_epub_c01_r1.html#newtop
.

42
. For several years I had the opportunity to work with teachers in several Massachusetts school districts who were actively working to develop antiracist classroom practices to benefit all of their students. Some of the work they did has been described in the following articles: Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “White Educators as Allies: Moving from Awareness to Action,” in
Off White: Readings on Race, Power, and Society
, ed. Michele Fine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1997), 333–42; Beverly Daniel Tatum and Elizabeth Knaplund, “Outside the Circle? The Relational Implications for White Women Working against Racism,” Work in Progress no. 78 (Wellesley, Mass.: Stone Center Working Paper Series); Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Teaching White Students about Racism: The Search for White Allies and the Restoration of Hope,”
Teachers College Record
95, no. 4 (1994): 462–76; Irwin Blumer and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Creating a Community of Allies: How One School System Attempted to Create an Anti-Racist Environment,”
International Journal of Leadership in Education
2, no. 3 (1999): 255–67.

43
. Some excellent resources include Louise Derman-Sparks, Patricia G. Ramsey, Julie Olson Edward,
What If All the Kids Are White? Anti-Bias Multicultural Education with Young Children and Families
(New York: Teachers College Press, 2006);
Rethinking Our Classrooms: Teaching for Equity and Justice
, vols. 1 and 2 (Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, 2001).

44
. Jonathan Kozol,
Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools
(New York: Crown, 1991).

45
. Gloria Ladson-Billings,
The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African American Children
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994); Michele Foster,
Black Teachers on Teaching
(New York: New Press,1997), Asa G. Hilliard III, “No Mystery: Closing the Achievement Gap,” in
Young, Gifted, and Black: Promoting High Achievement among African-American students
, ed. Theresa Perry, Claude Steele, and Asa Hilliard III (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003).

46
. Theresa Perry, “Freedom for Literacy,” in
Young, Gifted, and Black: Promoting High Achievement among African-American students
, ed. Theresa Perry, Claude Steele, and Asa Hilliard III (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), 50.

47
. Vanessa Siddle Walker,
Their Highest Potential: An African American School Community in the Segregated South
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

48
. Stephen D. Hancock, “White Women’s Work: On the Front Lines in Urban Education,” in
White Teachers, Diverse Classrooms
, ed. Julie Landsman and Chance W. Lewis (Sterling, Va.: Stylus, 2006), 93–109.

49
. Gloria Ladson-Billings, “Landing on the Wrong Note: The Price We Paid for Brown,”
Educational Researcher
33, no. 7 (2004): 3–13.

50
. Cochran-Smith,
Walking the Road
, 5.

51
. Ibid., 108.

52
. Hancock, “White Women’s Work,” 95.

53
. Ladson-Billings,
The Dreamkeepers
.

54
. Catherine E. Freeman, Benjamin Scafidi, and David L. Sjoquist, “Racial Segregation in Georgia Public Schools, 1994–2001: Trends, Causes and Impact on Teacher Quality,” in
School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back?
ed. John Charles Boger and Gary Orfield (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 148–63.

55
. The words to this song were written by James Weldon Johnson in 1899. The music to which it is sung was written by his brother, John R. Johnson.

56
. Raymond J. Wlodkowski and Margery B. Ginsberg,
Diversity & Motivation: Culturally Responsive Teaching
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995), 2.

57
. Herbert Kohl, “I Won’t Learn from You: Confronting Student Resistance,” in
Rethinking Our Classrooms: Teaching for Equity and Justice
(Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, 1994), 134–35.

58
. Ibid., 135.

59
. Jean Baker Miller, “Connections, Disconnections, and Violations,” Work in Progress no. 33 (Wellesley, Mass.: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1988).

60
. Quoted in Sonia Nieto,
The Light in Their Eyes: Creating Multicultural Learning Communities
(New York: Teachers College Press, 1999), 85.

61
. For an elaborated discussion of their response to this new content, see Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Talking about Race, Learning about Racism: The Application of Racial Identity Development in the Classroom,”
Harvard Educational Review
62, no. 1 (1992): 1–24.

62
. For an extended discussion of this point, see James Loewen,
Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).

63
. Frances E. Kendall,
Understanding White Privilege: Creating Pathways to Authentic Relationships across Race
(New York: Routledge, 2006), 82.

64
. Ibid., 85.

65
. For an extended discussion of White identity development, see Tatum,
“Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?”
93–113.

1
. See
Chapter 1
in this volume.

2
. For an in-depth discussion of the origin of this idea in American educational psychology, see Stephen Jay Gould, “The Hereditarian Theory of I.Q.: An American Invention,” in
The Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1996), 176–263.

3
. Jeff Howard,
Getting Smart: The Social Construction of Intelligence
(Waltham, Mass.: Efficacy Institute, 1992).

4
. See Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 178–88.

5
. Ibid., 176–83.

6
. Ibid., 188–89.

7
. Ibid., 188–94.

8
. See Leila Zenderland,
Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing
(Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 267–68

9
. H.H. Goddard, “The Binet Tests as Related to Immigration,”
Journal of Psycho-Athenics
18 (1913), 105–7, as cited in Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 195.

10
. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 196.

11
. H.H. Goddard, “Mental Tests and the Immigrant,”
Journal of Delinquency
2 (1917), 271, as cited in Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 197.

12
. H. H. Goddard, “Mental Tests and the Immigrant,”
Journal of Delinquency
2 (1928), 271, as cited in Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 198.

13
. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 207.

14
. Lewis M. Terman,
The Measurement of Intelligence
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916).

15
. Ibid., 91–92.

16
. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 224.

17
. Ibid., 247–51.

18
. For a much more detailed understanding of factor analysis and its limitations as used by Charles Spearman, see Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, Chapter 6, 264–350.

19
. C. Burt,
The Backward Child
, 10–11, as cited in Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 303.

20
. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 304.

21
. Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?”
Harvard Educational Review
39 (1969), 1–123.

22
. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray,
The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life
(New York: Free Press, 1994).

23
. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, 261.

24
. Howard Gardner,
Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
(New York: Basic Books, 1983).

25
. Jean Piaget,
The Psychology of Intelligence
(New York: Routledge, 1950).

26
. Howard,
Getting Smart
.

27
. Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson,
Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupils’ Intellectual Development
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968).

28
. Ibid.

29
. Robert Rosenthal, “Covert Communication in Classrooms, Clinics, and Courtrooms,”
Eye on Psi Chi
3, no. 1 (1998), 18–22.

30
. Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Teachers in Transition: The Impact of Antiracist Professional Development on Classroom Practice,”
Teachers College Record
99, no. 1 (fall 1997), 162–78.

31
. Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “White Educators as Allies: Moving from Awareness to Action,” in
Off White: Readings on Race, Power, and Society
, ed. Michelle Fine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1997), 340.

32
. Gwendolyn M. Parker,
Trespassing: My Sojourn in the Halls of Privilege
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), 49.

33
. Theresa Perry, “Freedom for Literacy and Literacy for Freedom: The African-American Philosophy of Education,” in
Young, Gifted, and Black: Promoting High Achievement among African-American Students
, ed. Theresa Perry, Claude Steele, and Asa G. Hilliard III (Boston: Beacon, 2003), 34.

34
. Ibid., 37.

35
. Claude M. Steele, “Thin Ice: Stereotype Threat and Black College Students,”
Atlantic Monthly
(August 1999), 44–54.

36
. Claude M. Steele, “A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Performance and Identity,”
American Psychologist
52 (1997), 613–29.

37
. Steven J. Spencer, Claude M. Steele, and Diane M. Quinn, “Stereotype Threat and Women’s Math Performance,”
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
35 (1999), 4–28.

38
. Steele, “A Threat in the Air.”

39
. Claude Steele, “Stereotype Threat and African-American Student Achievement,” in
Young, Gifted, and Black
, ed. Perry, Steele, and Hilliard, 121.

40
. Geoffrey L. Cohen and Claude M. Steele, “A Barrier of Mistrust: How Negative Stereotypes Affect Cross-Race Mentoring,” in
Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education
, ed. Joshua Aronson (San Diego: Academic, 2002), 303–28.

41
. Steele, “Thin Ice,” 51.

42
. Steele, “Stereotype Threat,” 126.

43
. Ibid., 126.

44
. As quoted in Howard,
Getting Smart
, 12.

45
. Carol Dweck, “Messages That Motivate: How Praise Molds Students’ Beliefs, Motivation, and Performance (in Surprising Ways),” in
Improving Academic Achievement
, ed. Aronson, 38–60.

46
. Joshua Aronson, Carrie B. Fried, and Catherine Good, “Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence,”
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
38, no. 2 (2002), 1–13.

47
. Lisa Sorich Blackwell, Kali Trzesniewski, and Carol Dweck, “Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention,”
Child Development
, forthcoming.

48
. This initiative, “Improving Interethnic Relations among Youth: A School-Based Project Involving Educators, Parents, and Youth,” was made possible with funding from the Carnegie Corporation of New York.

49
. This course was developed and first offered in 1993 to suburban educators participating in the METCO program, a voluntary school-desegregation program in the Boston area. For more information about the development of this course, and its impact on those teachers, see Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Teachers in Transition: The Impact of Antiracist Professional Development on Classroom Practice,”
Teachers College Record
99, no. 1 (fall 1997), pp. 162–78.