Beyond Belief (49 page)

16
. In 1908 Congress stipulated in an appropriations bill that the government was to use no funds for “the preparation of any newspaper or magazine articles.” In 1913, after investigating the public relations activities of federal agencies, Congress passed a law prohibiting the government's use of funds for “publicity experts.” But the law was the last futile attempt to try to stop what would soon become an accepted government activity. Edward L. Bernays,
Propaganda
(New York: Liveright, 1928), p. 27; F. B. Marbut,
News from the Capital
(Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1971), pp. 192-196, all as cited in Schudson, p. 139, 141.

17
. George Creel,
How We Advertised America
(New York: Harper & Row, 1920), p. 4; Harold D. Lasswell,
Propaganda Technique in the World War
(New York: Peter Smith, 1927), p. 20; and James R. Mock and Cedric Larson,
Words That Won the War
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1939)—all as cited in Schudson, p. 212.

18
. J. Roth,
World War I: A Turning Point in Modern History
(New York: Knopf, 1967), p. 109.

19
. Lasswell, “Propaganda,”
Encyclopedia Britannica
, vol. 18, p. 582, as cited in Markel, p. 15.

20
. Schudson, p. 142.

21
. Ibid., pp. 156-57; Leo C. Rosten,
The Washington Correspondents
(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937), p. 351. For an argument in favor of objectivity see Walter Lippmann,
A Preface to Morals
(New York: Macmillan, 1929, reprinted ed., Time Incorporated, 1964), pp. 222-224.

22
. Donald F. Drummond,
The Passing of American Neutrality, 1937-1941
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1955); William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason,
The Challenge to Isolation, 1937-1940
, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations/Harper & Row, 1952).

23
. Franklin Reid Gannon,
The British Press and Germany, 1936-1939
(London: Oxford, 1971), pp. 1-32; Harold Lavine and James Wechsler,
War Propaganda and the United States
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940), pp. 241-242.

24
. Harrison Salisbury,
Without Fear or Favor: An Uncompromising Look at the New York Times
(New York: Times Books, 1980), p. xi.

25
. Claud Cockburn,
In Time of Trouble
, as quoted in Gannon, p. xiv.

1
. Sackett to Hull, March 9, 1933,
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II, pp. 206-209. For examples of some of the early laws see “Law for the Restoration of the Regular Civil Service,”
Reichsgesetzblatt
, 34, April 4, 1933, and “First Decree with Reference to the Law for the Restoration of the Regular Civil Service,”
Reichsgesetzblatt
, 37, April 11, 1933; reprinted in
The Jews in Nazi Germany: The Factual Record of Their Persecution by the National Socialists
(New York: American Jewish Committee, 1933), pp. 1-2.

2
.
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, p. 21. For typical examples of coverage which did not focus on Nazi antisemitism see
New York Herald Tribune
, March 1, 1933, p. 1, March 2, 1933, p. 1, and
New York Times
, March 6, 1933, p. 1.

3
. H. R. Knickerbocker,
New York Evening Post
, April 15, 1933, as cited in
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, pp. 24-27.

4
.
Pittsburgh Sun
, March 24, 1933;
Poughkeepsie News
, March 11, 1933;
Toledo Times
, March 23, 1933—all cited in
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, pp. 71-79.

5
.
St. Louis “Times-Dispatch”
(sic), March 24, 1933, as cited in
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, p. 81;
Nashville Banner
, as cited in
Literary Digest
, April 8, 1933, p. 3;
New York Times
, April 2, 1933.

6
.
Chicago Tribune
, March 1, 1933, p. 1, March 3, 1933, p. 4;
New York Times
, March 5, 1933, p. 20.

7
.
New York Herald Tribune
, March 8, 1933, p. 22;
New York Times
, March 10, 1933, p. 1, March 15, 1933, p. 10, March 20, 1933, p. 1;
Los Angeles Times
, March 16, 1933, p. 10, March 20, 1933, p. 1;
Chicago Tribune
, March 20, 1933, p. 1.

8
.
Toledo Times
, March 23, 1933, as cited in
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, p. 77.

9
.
Los Angeles Times
, March 16, 1933, p. 10, March 26, 1933, p. 2, March 27, 1933, p. 1.

10
.
New York Herald Tribune
, March 25, 1933, p. 1.

11
.
New York Times
, March 13, 1933, p. 1. On March 9 in a page 1 story Birchall portrayed the situation in Germany as one in which Nazi extremists were committing a variety of actions against Jews, including the “boyish trick” of flying a swastika over a synagogue.
In one portion of the article he noted that the police had been ordered to investigate, and in another section he admitted that the police were under Nazi control.
New York Times
, March 9, 1933, pp. 1, 10.

12
.
Los Angeles Times
, March 27, 1933, p. 1;
Christian Century
, April 5, 1933, p. 443.

13
. Augusta (Maine)
Journal
, March 25, 1933.

14
.
Columbus
(Ohio)
Journal
, March 24, 1933; Vernon McKenzie, “Atrocities in World War II: What We Can Believe,”
Journalism Quarterly
, vol. XIX, (September 1942), pp. 268-276.

15
.
Christian Science Monitor
, February 18, 1933, p. 3, March 16, 1933, p. 12, March 22, 1933, p. 5; Moshe Gottlieb, “The First of April Boycott and the Reaction of the American Jewish Community,”
American Jewish Historical Society Quarterly
, vol. LVII (June 1968), p. 519.

16
.
Christian Science Monitor
, March 24, 1933, p. 1;
New York Herald Tribune
, March 24, 1933, p. 2, March 25, 1933, p. 1; William L. Shirer,
20th Century Journey: A Memoir of a Life and the Times
, vol. II,
The Nightmare Years, 1930-1940
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), p. 187.

17
.
Literary Digest
, April 8, 1933, p. 3.

18
. Marion K. Sanders,
Dorothy Thompson: A Legend in Her Time
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 185;
New York Times
, May 12, 1933, p. 12.

19
.
The Yellow Spot
(New York: Knight Publications, 1933), p. 33. Ernst Hanfstaengl, a graduate of Harvard, was appointed to head a press bureau which was designed to influence foreign correspondents in general and those from America in particular. His mother was a member of a prominent Back Bay Boston family, the Sedgwicks. Ernst Hanfstaengl,
Unheard Witness
(Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1957);
Christian Science Monitor
, March 24, 1933, p. 8; Gottlieb, “The First of April Boycott,” p. 519.

20
. Sigrid Schultz,
Germany Will Try It Again
(New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1944), p. 117.

21
.
New York Times
, March 26, 1933, sec. IV, p. 1;
Time
, April 3, 1933, pp. 16-17;
Los Angeles Times
, March 11, 1933, sec. II, p. 9;
Nation
, December 27, 1933, p. 728.

22
. Louis Lochner,
What About Germany?
(New York: Dodd, Mead, 1942), p. 286.

23
.
New York Times
, June 24, 1933, p. 12.

24
. Memo, Hull to Sackett, March 21, 1933,
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II; memorandum of press conference of Secretary of State, March 22, 1933,
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II, p. 328.

25
. Memo, Gordon to Hull, March 30, 1933,
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II, p. 335.

26
.
New York Times
, March 27, 1933, p. 1;
New York Herald Tribune
, March 27, 1933, p. 1;
Newsweek
, April 1, 1933, p. 5.

27
. Telephone call between Gordon and Phillips, March 31, 1933,
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II, p. 342; Gordon to Hull, March 23, 1933,
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II, pp. 328-331; Gordon to Hull, March 26, 1933, DS 862.4016/ 116, as cited in Shlomo Shafir, “The Impact of the Jewish Crisis on American German Relations, 1933-1939, Ph.D. diss. (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1971), p. 54.

28
. Shafir, p. 77;
New York Times
, March 27, 1933, p. 1.

29
. Louis Lochner to Betty Lochner, November 12, 1933, Lochner Papers, Mass Communications History Center, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. A portion of Lochner's letters to his children who were students in the United States have been reprinted in “Round Robins from Berlin: Louis P. Lochner's Letters to His Children, 1932-1941,”
Wisconsin Magazine of History
, vol. 50, no. 4 (Summer 1967), pp. 291-336;
Chicago Tribune
, January 28, 1936, p. 3.

30
.
FRUS
, May 12, 1933, vol. II, p. 398.

31
. Interview with C. Brooks Peters, February 12, 1985.

32
.
New York Herald Tribune
, March 24, 1933, p. 2;
Chicago Tribune
, April 9, 1933, p. 4; Schultz, p. 187; Edgar Ansel Mowrer,
Triumph and Turmoil: A Personal History of Our Times
(New York: Weybright and Talley, 1968), p. 225.

33
.
FRUS
, 1933, vol. II, pp. 403-406; Lilian Mowrer,
Journalist's Wife
(New York: Morrow, 1937), p. 307. For bungled attempts to get the
New York Evening Post
and
Philadelphia Public Ledger
to recall Knickerbocker, see
FRUS
, May 12, 1933, vol. II, pp. 400-401.

34
. Shirer, p. 138; S. Miles Bouton, “A Peculiar People,” in Robert Benjamin, ed.,
The Inside Story by Members of the Overseas Press Club of America
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1940), p. 116; interview with Howard K. Smith, February 27, 1985;
Saturday Evening Post
, June 2, 1934, p. 34; interview with Richard C. Hottelot, December 21, 1984.

35
. Shirer, p. 551.

36
. G. E. R. Gedye, “Vienna Waltz,” in Hanson Baldwin and Shepard Stone, eds.,
We Saw It Happen: The News Behind the News That's Fit to Print
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1938), p. 68.

37
. Louis Lochner,
Always the Unexpected: A Book of Reminiscences
(New York: Macmillan, 1956), p. 252; Lochner,
What About Germany?
p. 307.

38
. Sigrid Schultz, “Hermann Goering's ‘Dragon from Chicago,'” in David Brown and W. Richard Bruner, eds.,
How I Got That Story
(New York: Dutton, 1967), p. 76.

39
. Lochner,
What About Germany?
p. 303; Howard K. Smith,
Last Train from Berlin
(New York: Knopf, 1942), p. 48; interview with Percy Knauth, February 18, 1985; interview with C. Brooks Peters, February 12, 1985; transcript of recollections of Sigrid Schultz, Tribune Company Archives, tape 52A/000-745,
part II
, pp. 3-4, 14, Sigrid Schultz Collection, Mass Communications History Center of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

40
. Shirer, p. 229; Edgar Mowrer, pp. 225-226; H. R. Knickerbocker,
Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind
(New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1941), pp. 213-214.

41
. Edgar Mowrer, pp. 216-217, 224; Lilian Mowrer, p. 275, 287.

42
.
FRUS
, May 12, 1933, vol. II, p. 399; Shafir, p. 43.

43
.
Manchester Guardian
, April 9, 1933 (reprinted in
New York Times
, April 9, 1933);
New York Times
, December 24, 1933, p. 1.

44
. Edgar Mowrer,
Triumph
, pp. 216-217, 224; Lilian Mowrer, pp. 275, 287.

45
.
FRUS
, March 31, 1933, vol. II, p. 340.

46
. Hamilton Fish Armstrong,
Hitler's Reich: The First Phase
(New York: Macmillan, 1933), p. 19; Martha Dodd,
Through Embassy Eyes
(New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1939), p. 99; Hamilton Fish Armstrong,
Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler
(New York: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 530.

47
.
Macon
(Georgia)
Telegraph
, May 25, 1933, as quoted in
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, pp. 20-21; Shafir, pp. 76-77.

48
.
New York Times
, June 14, 1933, p. 4;
The Jews in Nazi Germany
, p. 16.

49
.
New York Times
, May 29, 1933, p. 5; May 30, 1933, p. 14.

50
. Edgar A. Mowrer,
Germany Puts the Clock Back
(New York: Morrow, 1933), pp. 230, 239;
Baltimore Sun
, August 1, 1935.

51
. Lochner,
What About Germany?
p. 109; Frederick Oeschner,
This Is the Enemy
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1942), p. 56.

52
. Dodd (White) to Hull, August 20, 1935, DS 862.4016, Decimal Files 1538, Department of State, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter DS and file numbers only).

53
.
Chicago Tribune
, March 13, September 14, 1932, February 4, 1933, March 13, 1933, March 24, 1933, August 9, 1933, August 11, 1933, August 12, 1933 (reprinted in
Los Angeles Times
, August 23, 1933), August 24, 1933, May 14, 1934, July 31, 1934—all as cited in Jerome Edwards,
The Foreign Policy of Col. McCormick's Tribune, 1929-1941
(Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1971), pp. 66, 92-94. Joseph Gies,
The Colonel of Chicago
(New York: Dutton, 1979), pp. 130, 147; Schultz,
Germany Will Try It Again
, p. x; George Seldes,
Tell the Truth
and Run
, (New York: Greenberg, 1953), p. 114; transcript of recollections of Sigrid Schultz,
part II
, p. 9.