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I
NTRODUCTION

¹
Plutarch,
Caesar
15 for the figures of 1 million dead and as many enslaved during the Gallic campaigns.

²
Quote from P. Green,
Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age
(1990), p. 664.

³
In just the last few years, several biographies of Cleopatra were published, including J. Tyldesley,
Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt
(hardback 2008, paperback 2009), J. Fletcher,
Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend
(hardback 2008, paperback 2009) and the briefer S. Ashton,
Cleopatra and Egypt
(2008), which followed on from the same author's
The Last Queens of Egypt
(2003). Other recent offerings include S. Burnstein,
The Reign of Cleopatra
(2004), and E. Rice,
Cleopatra
(1999). There were also two biographies of the couple: D. Preston & M. Preston,
Cleopatra and Antony
(2008), which notably reversed the usual order of their names to emphasise Cleopatra, and P. Southern,
Antony and Cleopatra
(hardback 2007, paperback 2009), which was based on earlier individual biographies of the couple by the same author. There have been no biographies dedicated to Antony since P. Southern,
Mark Antony
(1998), and A. Roberts,
Mark Antony: His Life and Times
(1988), and books devoted to Cleopatra have always been far more common. The same is true of TV documentaries.

⁴
R. Syme,
The Roman Revolution
(1939, paperback 1960) remains one of the most important studies of this period. Writing as fascist dictators in Germany and Italy threatened a new World War, he had little taste for Octavian. This encouraged a generosity in his treatment of Antony — ‘the frank and chivalrous soldier', Syme (1960), p. 104.

⁵
For general studies of the Hellenistic period, see F. Walbank,
The Hellenistic World
(3rd edn, 1992), G. Shipley,
The Greek World after Alexander 323–30
BC
(2000), and Green (1990).

⁶
Both Tyldesley and Fletcher are Egyptologists, and naturally develop these threads more strongly and in greater detail than Greek or Roman elements. For instance, note the allusions to Hatshepsut, who ruled as a female pharaoh in the fifteenth century
BC
, in Tyldesley (2009), pp.45, 121, Fletcher (2008), pp.43, 82–83, 86, and the particular concern for traditional iconography. This in itself is no bad thing and particularly valuable to Classicists who lack knowledge of earlier Egyptian history. The danger is that it comes to dominate the narrative of Cleopatra's own times and culture. Ashton has more of a background in Classics, but openly chose to emphasise the Egyptian aspects of the queen, feeling that these had been neglected, and wanted ‘to consider her as a ruler of Egypt, not as a Greek monarch' — Ashton (2008), p. 3, cf. p. 1. Her study focused in particular on representations of the queen in art.

⁷
P. van Minnen, ‘An Official Act of Cleopatra (with a Subscription in her Own Hand)',
Ancient Society
30 (2000), pp.29–34.

⁸
Plutarch, see the excellent commentary provided by C. Pelling (ed.),
Plutarch: Life of Antony
(1988).

⁹
The comment was made by W Tarn, in S. Cook, F. Adcock & M. Charlesworth (eds.),
The Cambridge Ancient History,
Vol. X:
The Augustan Empire 44
BC—AD
70
(1934, reprinted with corrections 1952), p. 111–‘For Rome, who had never condescended to fear any nation or people, did in her time fear two human beings; one was Hannibal, and the other was a woman.'

I T
HE
Two L
ANDS

¹
An Egyptian priest named Manetho drew up the list of pharaohs as part of a history he wrote in Greek at the request of Ptolemy II. It survives only in fragments quoted in much later sources, see D. Mendels, ‘The Ptolemaic Character of Manetho's
Aegyptica',
in H. Verdin, G. Schepens & E. De Keyser,
Purposes of History: Proceeding of the International Colloquim — Leuven, 24–26 May 1988
(1990), pp.91–110. For earlier Egyptian history in general, a useful introduction is 1. Shaw (ed.),
The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
(2000).

²
For claims about the size of Egypt's population, see Josephus,
BJ
2. 385, Diodorus Siculus 1. 31. 6–9, with R. Bagnall & B. Frier,
The Demography of Roman Egypt
(1994), T. Parkin,
Demography and Roman Society
(1992), W Scheidel,
Measuring Sex, Age, and Death in the Roman Empire: Explorations in Ancient Demography, JRA
Supplementary Series 21 (1996), and D. Rathbone, ‘Villages, Land and Population in Graeco-Roman Egypt',
Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society
36 (1990), pp.103–142.

³
See F. Dunand & C. Zivie-Coche,
Gods and Men in Egypt 3000
BCE
to 395
CE
(trans. D. Lorton) (2002), esp. pp.197–199.

⁴
Plutarch,
Caesar
11, Suetonius,
Caesar
7. 1–2, and Dio 37. 52. 2.

⁵
P. Green,
Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age
(1990), pp.3–7, and F. Walbank,
The Hellenistic World
(3rd edn with amendments, 1992), pp.29–45.

⁶
For discussion and sources see Green, (1990), pp.3–20.

⁷
J. Bingen,
Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture
(2007), p. 24.

⁸
For Ptolemy I's career see W Ellis,
Ptolemy of Egypt
(1994); on language see W Clarysee, ‘Ethnic Diversity and Dialect among the Greeks of Egypt', in A. Verhoogt & S. Vleeming (eds.),
The Two Faces of Graeco-Roman Egypt: Greek and Demotic and Greek-Demotic Texts and Studies Presented to P. W. Pestman
(1998), pp.1–13.

⁹
For introductory discussion of what happened at Siwah see P. Cartledge,
Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past
(2004), pp.265–270.

¹⁰
Walbank, (1992), pp.108–110.

¹¹
W Scheidel,
Death on the Nile: Disease and the Demography of Roman Egypt
(2001), pp.184–248.

¹²
R. Bagnall, ‘Greeks and Egyptians: Ethnicity, Status and Culture', in R. Bianchi (ed.),
Cleopatra's Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies
(1988), pp.21–25, N. Lewis,
Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World
(1986), pp.26–35, 69–87 and 124–154; the soldier's will, see W. Clarysee, ‘Greeks and Egyptians in the Ptolemaic Army and Administration',
Aegyptus
65 (1985), pp.57–66, esp. 65.

¹³
Lewis (1986), pp.104–123, and Clarysee (1985), pp.57–66.

II T
HE
‘S
HE
-W
OLF
': R
OME'S
R
EPUBLIC

¹
A. Lampela,
Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt: The Development of their Political Relations 273–80
BC
(1998), pp.50–51, E. Gruen,
The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome.
Vol. 2 (1984), pp.672–719, esp. 673–678, and P. Green,
Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age
(1990), pp.146 and 231.

²
Gruen (1984), pp.674–677.

³
F. Walbank,
The Hellenistic World
(3rd impression, 1992), pp.228–240. There was brief reluctance on the part of the Roman people to vote for war so soon after the end of the Second Punic War. This reluctance was quickly overcome, see Livy 31. 5–9.

⁴
Polybius 1. 1. 5 (Loeb translation by W. Paton (1922)).

⁵
On the development of the army see L. Keppie,
The Making of the Roman Army
(1984), pp.14–63, and in general F. Adcock,
The Roman Art of War under the Republic
(1940), P. Brunt,
Italian Manpower 225
BC—AD
14
(1971), and E. Gabba,
The Roman Republic, the Army and the Allies
(trans. P. Cuff)(1976).

⁶
E. Badian,
Publicans and Sinners
(1972).

⁷
For the economic impact of imperialism see K. Hopkins,
Conquerors and Slaves
(1978); on the wine trade see B. Cunliffe,
Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction
(1988), pp.59–105, esp. p. 74, N. Roymans,
Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective,
Cingula 12 (1990), pp.147–167, and A. Tchernia, ‘Italian Wine in Gaul at the End of the Republic', in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins & C. Whittaker (eds.),
Trade in the Ancient Economy
(1983), pp.87–104.

⁸
Plutarch,
Tiberius Gracchus
9 (Penguin translation by 1. Scott-Kilvert (1965)).

⁹
Catullus 10; Cicero,
Verrines
1. 40.

¹⁰
See M. Beard,
The Roman Triumph
(2007) for a detailed discussion of triumphs, emphasising in particular the variations in ritual.

III T
HE
P
TOLEMIES

¹
For spear-won land and the nature of Hellenistic kingship see P. Green,
Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age
(1990), pp.5, 187, 194, 198 and 367, and N. Hammond, ‘The Macedonian Imprint on the Hellenistic World', in P. Green (ed.),
Hellenistic History and Culture
(1993), pp.12–37.

²
See J. Bingen,
Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture
(2007), pp.15–30, esp. 18–19; for stories that Philip was his father see Curtius 9. 8. 22, Pausanius 1. 6. 2.

³
R. Bianchi,
Cleopatra's Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies
(1988), pp.29–39, F. Dunand & C. Zivie-Coche,
Gods and Men in Egypt 3000
BCE
to 395
BCE
(trans. D. Lorton) (2002), pp.197— 341, esp. pp.199–210, N. Lewis,
Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World
(1986), pp.4–5, and M. Chauveau,
Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra
(trans. D. Lorton) (2000), pp.37–39, 100–109; on the return of objects taken by the Persians see J. Winnicki, ‘Carrying off and Bringing Home the Statues of the Gods',
Journal of Juristic Papyrology
24 (1994), pp.149–190.

⁴
Diodorus Siculus 20. 100. 3–4, with Green (1990), pp.32–33.

⁵
In general see A. Erskine, ‘Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria',
Greece & Rome
42 (1995), pp.38–48, and G. Shipley,
The Greek World after Alexander 323–30
BC
(2000), p. 243; on the aggressive acquisition of books see Galen,
Comm. In Hipp.Epid. 111, CMG
5. 10. 2. 1, pp.78–79.

⁶
See Shipley (2000), p. 139.

⁷
For Arsinoe in general see S. Pomeroy,
Women in Hellenistic Egypt
(1984), pp.14–20, and Bingen (2007), pp.30–31.

⁸
Polybius 5. 34. 1–11, 15. 25. 1– 33.13.

⁹
Polybius 5. 107. 1–3, and in general Shipley (2000), pp.203–205.

¹⁰
M. Austin,
The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation
(1981), p. 227.

¹¹
Polybius 15. 20. 1–2.

¹²
Polybius 29. 27. 1–11, Livy 45. 12. 3–8.

¹³
Green (1990), pp.442–446.

¹⁴
Green (1990), pp.537–543, Pomeroy (1984), pp.23–24, and Chauveau (2000), pp.14–16.

¹⁵
Polybius 34. 14. 1–7, Strabo,
Geog.
17. 1. 12.

¹⁶
Lewis (1986), pp.15–20 and 29–30, A. Samuel,
From Athens to Alexandria: Hellenism and Social Goals in Ptolemaic Egypt
(1983), pp.110–117, and Shipley (2000), pp.232–234; for the Potter's Oracle see S. Burnstein,
The Reign of Cleopatra
(2004), pp.142–143.

¹⁷
See Green (1990), pp.158–160.

¹⁸
Diodorus 33. 28b.1–3, Athenaeus 6. 273a.

IV T
HE
O
RATOR, THE
S
PENDTHRIFT AND THE
P
IRATES

¹
On childbirth in this period see B. Rawson,
Children and Childhood in Roman Italy
(2003), esp. pp.99–113; for an especially poignant tombstone see that of ‘Ertola, properly called Vellibia, who lived most happily four years and sixty days' from Corbridge, which is decorated with a child-like carving of the little girl playing with a ball,
RIB
1181. There was also a tradition of very specific ages, even for adults, on tombstones in some parts of Italy.

²
For a general survey of the significance of Roman names see B. Salway, ‘What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from 700
BC—AD
700',
JRS
84 (1994), pp.124–145, esp. pp.124–131.

³
Cicero,
Brutus
138–141 (Loeb translation).

⁴
Valerius Maximus 3. 7. 9, 6. 8. 1, and see E. Gruen,
Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts, 149–78
BC
(1968), pp.127–132.

⁵
For Mithridates and his wars with Rome see P. Matyszak,
Mithridates the Great: Rome's Indomitable Enemy
(2008), and A. Mayor,
The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithridates
(2009).