An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States (47 page)

slavery.
See
African American slaves and slavery
;
African slaves and slavery

Slotkin, Richard, 107, 178–79, 235

smallpox, 62, 68

Smith, John, 28, 59, 60, 195

Smith, Redbird, 158

social contract, 52

social Darwinism, 39, 118

social dysfunction, 211–14

social movement theory, 230

soldiers: buffalo, 143, 146–49, 167; Indigenous, 135, 158; Scots-Irish, 54

soldier-settlers, 53, 125

Sonora Desert, early agriculture in, 21–22

South Africa: British defeat of Boers in, 140; as covenant state, 47, 48, 50

South America, independence movement in, 119–20

sovereignty: and Curtis Act, 158; and Dawes Allotment Act, 158; and Doctrine of Discovery, 200, 214, 217; and fishing rights, 182; and future of US, 229–31; and Indian Appropriation Act, 142; and Indian Claims Commission, 173; and Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 210; and Indian Reorganization Act, 190; in Indigenous constitutions, 216; and Indigenous governance, 215; and Indigenous movement, 10; industrialization and, 168; and narrative of dysfunction, 211; in pre-colonial period, 25–26; and repatriation, 207, 231, 233; and self-determination, 202–4; and Termination Act, 173–74; and Trail of Broken Treaties, 185

Spain: colonialism by, 199; in “New World,” 42–43; and Quincentennial year, 197–98

Spanish-American War (1898), 120

Spanish Florida (Guale), 66, 90

Spanish settler-colonists in Mexico, 125

“special operations,” 58

Special Operations Command, 221–22

Spicer, Edward H., 32

spirit world in Indigenous governance, 26, 246n14

Spott, Robert, 169–70

Standing Bear, Luther, 157

Stannard, David, 37

Starr, Emmet, 30

starvation: and allotments, 189; buffalo hunting and, 187; in California, 130; of Cherokees, 88–89; of Chickamaugas, 89; of Dakota Sioux, 136; in Illinois and Indiana Territories, 87; of Lakotas, 155; of
Muskogees, 99; of Navajos, 139; of Pequots, 63; of Sauks, 111; Sherman on, 156; in Tidewater War, 61; of Yuroks, 169

Stegner, Wallace, 105

Stone, Oliver, 228

Struck By the Ree, 164–65

Sun Dance, 21, 189

Sun Elk, 212

Survival of American Indians Association, 182

Susquehannock people, 61

Tainos, 23

Taos Blue Lake, 179–80, 258n5

Taos Pueblo, 212; and Carlisle Indian Industrial School, 212; early history of, 22; sacred lands of, 179–80, 258n5; US trading with, 171

Tatanka Yotanka (Sitting Bull), 151–52, 154

Tecumseh, 72, 84–87, 93, 98, 144

Tennessee, formation of, 87–90

Tenochtitlán, 19

Tenskwatawa, 72, 84–85, 86

Teotihuacán, 19

Tepanec people, 19

terminal narratives, 39–42

Termination Act (1953), 173–74, 175

termination policy, 10, 12, 190, 191

terra nullius,
2, 230–31

Texas: Indigenous peoples of, 126; land grants in, 123, 126–27; republic of, 127; Spanish control of, 125–26; statehood of, 123–24, 127

Texas Rangers, 127, 130–31, 150

Texcoco, 19

Thlopthlocco, 158–59

Tidewater War (1644–46), 61

Tippecanoe, “battle” of, 86

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 113–14

Tohono O'odam Nation, 126

Toltec civilization, 19

torture: return of legalized, 222–24

total war: against Apaches, 132, 138; against Cherokee Nation, 75, 89; during Civil War, 94; and future of United States, 218; against Muskogee Nation, 93; against Navajos, 138; in Ohio Country, 81–83; in Philippines, 166; against Plains Indians, 139; under William T. Sherman, 144–45; in Virginia Country, 61; during war of independence, 76, 77; in West, 144–46, 149; after World War II, 12

trade routes, 41

trading: by Aztecs, 20–21; in Mexico, 121–22

trading posts, 144

The Trail of Broken Treaties, 185

Trail of Tears, 112–14

treaties, 255n19; with Confederacy, 135; for fishing rights, 181–82; halt in making of, 142; honoring of, 202–3, 236; and Indian Appropriation Act, 142; and Indian Claims Commission, 174; and Indian Self-Determination Act, 209; of Indians of All Tribes, 183–84; and Indigenous governance, 25–26; in Jacksonian period, 111–12; and land grabs, 140–41, 173, 205–6; and narrative of dysfunction, 211; number of, 142; and reservations, 11; with Sioux Nation, 186–91; Trail of Broken, 185; UN investigation of, 205; after war of independence, 79–80

Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814), 100–101

Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809), 85

Treaty of Greenville (1795), 83

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), 123, 150

Treaty of Holston (1791), 89

Treaty of Hopewell (1785), 88

Treaty of Paris (1763), 70, 78

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), 42, 199

treaty rights, 10, 207–8

“tribal governments,” 171, 190

Triple Alliance, 20

Truman, Harry S., 173

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 8, 179

“Turner Thesis,” 179

turquoise in Aztec civilization, 20–21, 246n5

“20-Point Position Paper,” 185

Ulster-Scots, 51–54, 248n17

Unassigned Lands, 158

Union Army, Indigenous soldiers in, 135–36

Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA), 200–201

United Nations (UN): Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 8; Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 185, 204, 260n21; International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples, 198; Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 200, 260n21; proposals for Quincentennial year to, 197–98; Study on Treaties, 205; Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 260n21

United Provinces of Central America, 119–20

United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians
(1980), 207

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 175, 204

“unlawful combatants,” 151, 222–23

urban industrial areas, relocation to, 174

US Army: and Apaches, 131–32; and Bozeman Trail, 145; in California, 130; during Civil War, 133–34; departments of, 133; destruction of Prophet's Town by, 86; formation of, 80, 82; and gold rush, 129; and Indian Removal Act, 112; invasion of Mexico by, 123; and irregular warfare, 59, 220; and Modocs, 223; in Philippines, 166; and Sioux Nation, 188, 191; Special Operations Command of, 221–22; in war “to win the West,” 144, 149; Winchester rifle use by, 234

US Constitution: Great Law of Peace and, 26, 246n14; mention of Indigenous nations in, 79–80; veneration of, 50

US military bases, 225–26

UUA (Unitarian Universalist Association), 200–201

Vatican, and Quincentennial year, 197–98

VAWA (Violence Against Women Act, 1994), 214

Venne, Sharon, 203

Vietnam War era, 179–91; counterinsurgency in, 176–77, 179, 192–93; self-determination movement during, 181–86; Taos Pueblo in, 179–80; Wounded Knee in, 186–91

Villa, Francisco “Pancho,” 167

Vine, David, 225

violence: in irregular warfare, 57–60; against Miamis, 82; militarization and, 227; against Muskogee Nation, 91; in Ohio Country, 71, 73; settler colonialism and, 8; sexual, 214, 262n32.
See also
civilian attacks

Violence Against Women Act (VAWA, 1994), 214

Virginia Colony, 60–62

Virginia Tech killings, 195

Vizenor, Gerald, 197, 216–17

Volunteer Army of the Pacific, 138

Wahunsonacock, 60

Wakapuchasee (Cowkeeper), 101

Wampanoag people, 64

warfare: colonial, 57–60; and colonial expansion, 65–66; in French and Indian War, 67–71; against Haudenosaunee, 76–77; in New England colony, 62–64; in Ohio Country, 71–74; and scalping, 64–65; in Virginia colony, 60–62; in war of independence, 74–76; “wilderness,” 64.
See also
irregular warfare

War on Poverty, 182, 208–9

Warren, Dave, 176

Washington, George: and Cherokee Nation, 88; on “foreign entanglements,” 121; and Haudenosaunee, 77; as hero, 107; and Ohio Country, 81, 82; and US Army, 80; and US colonization, 93

Watie, Stand, 135

Wayne, “Mad” Anthony, 82–83, 86

WCU (Working Class Union), 166

wealth accumulation, 43–44

Weaver, Jace, 148

Wells, William, 83, 87

West, war to win, 144–46

westerns, 218

Weyapiersenwah (Blue Jacket), 81, 83, 85

White Earth Nation, 216–17

white supremacy, 36–39

Whitman, Walt, 117–18, 130–31, 253n2

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 130, 131

Wilcox, Michael V., 42

Wilder, Laura Ingalls, 252–53n19

wilderness, myth of pristine, 45–47

“wilderness warfare,” 64

Williams, Robert A., 3–4

Wilson, Richard, 186

Winchester, Sarah L., 234–35

witchcraft, 35–36

Witt, Shirley Hill, 181

Wolfe, Patrick, 2, 10

Wolford, Phillip, 194–95

women: in Indigenous governance, 27; violence against, 214, 262n32

Working Class Union (WCU), 166

Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), 93, 155–57, 162

Wounded Knee siege (1973), 186–91, 193

Wovoka, 153

Yankton Sioux Reservation, 164–65

Yoo, John C., 222–23

Yurok Nation, 169–70

BEACON PRESS

Boston, Massachusetts

www.beacon.org

Beacon Press books are published under the auspices of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations.

© 2014 by Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

18  17  16  15  14           8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

Beacon Press's ReVisioning American History series consists of accessibly written books by notable scholars that reconstruct and reinterpret US history from diverse perspectives.

Text design and composition by Wilsted & Taylor Publishing Services

Excerpts from Simon J. Ortiz's
from Sand Creek: Rising in This Heart Which Is Our America
(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000) are reprinted here with permission.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne.

An indigenous peoples' history of the United States / Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz.

pages cm — (ReVisioning American history)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8070-0040-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8070-0041-0 (ebook)

1. Indians of North America—Historiography. 2. Indians of North America—Colonization. 3. Indians, Treatment of— United States—History. 4. United States—Colonization. 5. United States— Race relations. 6. United States—Politics and government. I. Title.

E76.8.D86 2014

970.004'97—dc23                           2013050262