American Language Supplement 2 (55 page)

4
Pidgin English in Hawaii,
American Speech
, Feb., 1933, pp. 15–19.

5
The English Dialect of Hawaii,
American Speech
, Feb. and April, 1934, pp. 48–58 and 122–31. See also Insular English, by T. T. Waterman,
Hawaii Educational Review
, Feb., 1930. Other authorities are cited in the Reinecke papers.

6
Miss Elisabeth F. Smith, copyright supervisor of the
Monitor
, has been kind enough to make a diligent search for the author and date of this article, but without success.

1
Pau
is used in many other idioms, and has become, indeed, a counterword,
e.g.
, “That’s
pau
for now” and “She’s
pau
on him.” I am indebted here to Mr. John Springer.

2
Private communication, March 13, 1938. I am also indebted here to Major William D. Workman, Jr.

3
Chicago, 1943. The subtitle of this work indicates that its purpose is to instruct performers on “radio, stage and screen,” but it is full of observations that are of interest to more methodical students of the language.

1
It still survives, however, as a
lingua franca
. See Pidgin English in Hawaii, by William C. Smith,
American Speech
, Feb., 1933, pp. 15–19.

2
Hawaii was annexed to the United States Aug. 12, 1898.

3
I am indebted here to Das Volksgruppenrecht in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, by Heinz Kloss; Essen, 1940, Vol. I, pp. 589–95.

4
The Hawaiian Language, by Henry P. Judd; Honolulu, 1940, p. 5.

5
See also AL4, pp. 372–77.

1
The English Language in the Philippines,
American Speech
, Nov., pp. 111–20.

2
Other examples are in A Little Brown Language, by Jerome B. Barry,
American Speech
, Oct., 1927, pp. 14–20, and Bamboo English, by George G. Struble, the same, April, 1929, pp. 276–85.

1
American Speech
, Dec., 1941, p.303.

2
Mr. Hartford Beaumont: private communication, March 11, 1938. I am also indebted here to Mr. James Ross, of Manila; Mr. James Halsema and Captain Henry L. Harris.

3
See also AL4, pp. 375–77.

1
The spokesman was a university student, Carlos Carrera Benitez, and his protest was part of a speech he delivered at an Inter-American Conference held at San Juan in April, 1941, under the management of Archibald MacLeish, the New Deal poet-statesman. See The Spanking of A. MacLeish,
New Masses
, May 20, 1941, pp. 21–24. Padín’s ideas were set forth in English in Puerto Rico; San Juan, 1935 – a very effective piece of writing, far beyond the capacity of any but a microscopic minority of American pedagogues.

1
Weekly News Bulletin
of the American Civil Liberties Union, July 29, Sept. 30 and Nov. 4, 1946, and March 10 and 31, 1947. There is an admirable summary of the situation in The Teaching of English in Puerto Rico, by Mariano Villaronga, commissioner of education; San Juan, Feb., 1947. I am indebted for the chance to see it to Senator Guy Cordon, of Oregon. See also American Editors, Please Take Notice,
Puerto Rico Libre
, Oct. 30, 1946, and The Teaching of English in Puerto Rico, a Statement of Principles by the Puerto Rico Teachers’ Association; San Juan, 1945. For help here and hereafter I owe thanks to Dr. Eugenio Vera, of Rio Piedras.

2
AL4, p. 596, n. 1.

3
The Teaching of English in Puerto Rico, before cited, p. 2. Since 1900 the population of the island has increased 120% as compared to 84% for the United States. It is now 618 per square mile, as compared to 47 for the United States. The island has consumed $1,000,000,000 of American money since 1898, but is still desperately poor. See the
Population Bulletin
of the Population Reference Bureau, Washington, May, 1946.

4
Newsweek
, April 8, 1940;
Saturday Review of Literature
, July 20, 1946, p. 17.

1
As a result of this last
bedclothes
has become a euphemism for
sheet
.

2
United States Government Printing Office Style Manual; Washington, 1945, p. 41.

3
A Bibliographical Guide to Materials on American Spanish by Madaline W. Nicholas; Cambridge (Mass.), 1941, pp. 97–98. By the kindness of Dr. Vera, Mr. Richardson, Lcdo. J. M. Toro Nazario and Dr. del Rosario I have accumulated some interesting notes upon these loans, but they have been crowded out of the present volume along with all my other material relating to non-English languages. See AL4, p. 649.

1
Negro Dialect of the Virgin Islands,
American Speech
, Feb., pp.175–79.

1
Helen L. Munroe says in West Indian English,
American Speech
, Jan., 1927, p. 201, that “persons familiar with Montserrat claim that the blacks there have an Irish brogue.” For the dialect of Barbadoes see American English as Spoken by the Barbadians, by Dorothy Bentz,
American Speech
, Dec., 1938, pp. 310–12, and The Well of English, by P. T. L., London
Morning Post
, Nov. 9, 1935; for that of Jamaica, The Runt Pig, by Ethel Rovere,
American Mercury
, June, 1945, pp. 713–19, and The English Ballad in Jamaica, by Martha W. Beckwith,
Publications of the Modern Language Association
, June, 1924, pp. 455–83; and for that of Trinidad, Getting Into Bassa-Bassa Over Trinidad’s Lingo, Baltimore
Evening Sun
(editorial page), Feb. 2, 1938. The speech of Bermuda has been dealt with by Harry Morgan Ayres in Bermudian English,
American Speech
, Feb., 1933, pp. 3–10, and that of the Bush Negroes of Dutch Guiana, a very corrupt form of English, by A. G. Barnett, in Colonial Survivals in Bush-Negro Speech,
American Speech
, Aug. 1932, pp. 393–97; by Morton C. Kahn in Djuka: the Bush Negroes of Dutch Guiana; New York, 1931, pp. 161–74, and by an anonymous writer in Bush-Nigger English, Manchester
Guardian Weekly
, Oct. 21, 1931. See AL4, pp. 371–72 and 377–78.

2
Cambridge (England), 1926, p. xxxvii.

3
Whether or not
first-class
, in the general sense of excellent, is an Americanism remains to be determined. The English use it to designate the best compartments on a train and students taking the honors at university examinations, but their more usual term for excellence otherwise is
first-rate
.

4
Canadian English,
Canadian Journal
, Vol. II, 1857, pp. 344–55.

5
Canadian English, by W. D. Light-all,
Week
(Toronto), Aug. 16, 1889, pp. 581–83.

1
For
bug
see AL4, pp. 12, 86 and 310, and Supplement I, pp. 460, 462 and 660; for
to fix
, AL4, p. 26, and Supplement I, pp. 497–98, and for
to guess
, Supplement I, pp. 44, 52 and 78.
To locate
is traced by the DAE to 1652,
rooster
to 1772,
cars
(now obsolete) to 1826,
dry-goods
to 1701,
store
, in the sense of a retail establishment, to 1721, and
dock
, in the sense noted, to 1707.
Sidewalk
is old in England, but is rare there.

2
Dialect Research in Canada,
Dialect Notes
, Vol. I, Part II, pp. 43–56. See Supplement I, p. 169, n. 1.

3
Spoken English, by Thomas C Trueblood,
Quarterly Journal of Speech
, Vol. XIX, 1933, pp. 513–21. Another phonologist, Martin Joos, agrees in A Phonological Dilemma in Canadian English,
Language
, Vol. XVIII, 1942, pp. 141–44. “Ontario English,” he says, “differs from the neighboring General American speech (for instance, in rural New York or Wisconsin) in only two items of any phonological consequence.” These are (a)
pod
and
pawed
are homophones, and
(b)
the diphthongs
ai
and
aw
(but not
oi
as in
boy
) each have two variants.

1
Montreal English, by Helen C. Munroe,
American Speech
, Oct., 1929, p. 21.

2
A Note on Canadian English, by W. S. W. McLay,
American Speech
, April, 1930, pp. 328–29. “No Canadian, no matter how strongly his heart beats for the Empire,” said a writer signing himself J. R. M. in the Winnipeg
Free Press
, June 20, 1936, “ever says
goods-train
or
lorry
or
petrol
.” Under date of Dec. 3, 1945, Mr. Ralph O. Bates, of Melrose, Mass., writes: “The Canadian language lies between English and American, though much nearer to American. Canadians are likely to use the English
return ticket, nib
(pen point),
mudguard, braces
(suspenders) and
meat-pie
(pot-pie). In my boyhood in Canada both the American
hog-pen
and the English
pig-sty
were heard, but the most common term was
pig-pen
.” The extent to which Americanisms are encountered in the debates of the Canadian Houses of Parliament was discussed in Parliament Goes Hollywood (editorial), Ottawa
Journal
, April 7, 1934.

3
An unfamiliar Americanism, even an old one, is sometimes resisted stoutly by the Canadian equivalents of the English connoisseurs of American linguistic atrocities, but always in vain. In 1931, for example, there was an uproar from them when a Montreal coke company used
raise in pay
in an advertisement instead of the English
rise
. But nothing came of it. See
Raise
or
Rise
, by Helen C. Munroe,
American Speech
, Aug., 1931, pp. 407–10.

4
A Note on Canadian Speech, by Morley Ayearst,
American Speech
, Oct., 1939, pp. 231–33.

5
But I have often heard
córnet
in the United States, and destiny seems to be on its side, for the general tendency of American, as we have seen, is to move the accent forward.

1
Ontario Speech, by Evelyn Ahrend,
American Speech
, April, 1934, pp. 136–39.

2
Our Canadian Speech, Toronto
Saturday Night
, June 29. Macphail was born on Prince Edward Island in 1864, but spent his life on the mainland. He had some reputation as a pathologist, but, like Sir William Osler, had literary inclinations and wrote a number of non-medical books. He was knighted in 1918, apparently for his services in World War I.

1
Supplement 1, p. 71. Other references to Canadian speechways are on pp. 90, 97, 178, 184, 320, 353, 477, 490, 545, 596, 599, 601 and 608. Not a few common Americanisms have come into the language from Canada, especially through Canadian French,
e.g., chowder, toboggan
and
portage
.

2
The Polyglot Vernacular of the Canadian North West, by E. L. Chicanot,
Modern Language Review
, Vol. X, 1915, pp. 88–89; Western Canadian Dictionary and Phrase-Book, by John Sandilands; Winnipeg, 1912.

3
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, Vol. I, Part VIII, pp. 377–81. To Tweedie’s vocabulary the editors of
Dialect Notes
added some terms gathered by the Rev. William Pilot in Newfoundland.

1
Canada,
Dialect Notes
, Vol. IV, Part V, p. 332.

2
Newfoundland Dialect Items,
Dialect Notes
, Vol. V, Part VIII, pp. 322–46.

1
See also Notes on the Dialect of the People of Newfoundland, by George Patterson, a paper read at a meeting of the Montreal branch of the American Folk-Lore Society, May 21, 1894,
Journal of American Folk-Lore
, Jan.-March, 1895, pp. 27–40. Patterson noted the Newfoundland use of
knowledgeable
, which became a counterword in England years later. See Supplement I, p. 423. Otherwise his word list did not differ materially from those I have abstracted. In the same journal, Jan.-March, 1896, pp. 19–37, he published some notes on Montreal speech, and in July-Sept., 1897, pp. 203–13 he followed with further notes on Canadian speech.

2
Terms From the Labrador Coast,
American Speech
, Oct., pp. 56–58.

3
More Labrador Survivals,
American Speech
, April, pp. 290–91.

4
The Dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia,
Language
, June, 1935, pp. 140–47.

1
Emeneau published A Further Note on the Dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, in
Language
, July-Sept., 1945.

2
Toronto, 1940.

3
The dialects of the other British possessions and of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales lie outside the purview of this book, but I add a note on them for readers who may be interested. A bibliography running down to the end of 1922 is in Kennedy, pp. 380–405. For Cockney, since that time, see Cockney Past and Present, by William Matthews; London, 1938; Cockney
H
in Old and Middle English, by G. Ch. Van Langenhove,
Leuvensche Bijdragen
, Vol. XV, 1923, pp. 1–50; Bernard Shaw’s Phonetics, by Joseph Saxe; London, 1936; Cockney,
John o’London’s Weekly
, March 25, 1938, p. 1017, and The Cockney Tongue, by W. M. Eager,
Contemporary Review
, Sept., 1922, pp. 363–72. The dialect of Australia is dealt with exhaustively in The Australian Language, by Sidney J. Baker; Sydney, 1945, an extremely valuable work, and Baker is also the author of A Popular Dictionary of Australian Slang; Melbourne, 1941, and New Zealand Slang; Christ-church, 1941. See also New Zealand English, by Arnold Wall; Christ-church, 1938; Meet New Zealand, a pamphlet issued for the guidance of American soldiers by the New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs; Wellington, 1942; Pocket Guide to Australia, issued by the American War and Navy Departments; Washington, 1942, especially pp. 46–48; Australian Slang, London
Morning Post
, June 15, 1936; Australian Slang, by Wilson Hicks,
Life
, May 18, 1942, pp. 15–17; Australian Slang, by E. S. Moore and others, London
Observer
, Oct. 23, Nov. 6 and 13, Dec. 11, 1938;
Fiddlers, Ropies
and
Skiddies, New Zealand Free Lance
, Aug. 18, 1943; How They Say it in Australia, by Philip Faxon,
This Week
, June 29, 1941; The Dinkum Oil, London
News-Review
, Aug. 2, 1945; Americans May Learn New Lingo in Australia, Baltimore
Evening Sun
, March 20, 1942; Timely Tips to New Australians, by Jice Doone (Vance Marshall); London, 1926; Australian Slang, in Slang Today and Yesterday, by Eric Partridge; second edition; London, 1935, pp. 414–21; Australia and the Mother Tongue, by B. T. Richardson, Baltimore
Sun
, Dec. 28, 1943; A Christmas Letter From Australia, by Robert B. Palmer,
Journal of the American Medical Association
, Dec. 11, 1943; I’ve Been in Australia, by Lucille Gordon,
Good Housekeeping
, Sept., 1942; Down Under, by John Oakes,
New Yorker
, Sept. 28, 1935; Pardon My Aussie Accent, by Harold Rosenthal,
Newspaperman
, Jan., 1945;
Cobber, Dinkum
and
Swag
Test Americans Down Under,
Christian Science Monitor
, Nov. 30, 1942; Slang Down Under, New York
Times Magazine
, Jan. 17, 1943; English as it is Spoken in New Zealand, by J. A. W. Bennett,
American Speech
, April, 1943, pp. 81–95, and The Pronunciation of English in Australia, by A. G. Mitchell; Sydney, 1946. See also Burke, pp. 146–48. For South African English the authority is South African English Pronunciation, by David Hopwood; Cape Town, 1928. For that of India it is A Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases, by Henry Yule and Arthur Coke Burnell; London, 1886. See also Some Notes on Indian English, by R. C. Goffin,
S. P. E. Tract No. XLI
, 1936, pp. 20–32. The English Dialect Society has brought out volumes on the speech of nearly all the English counties, and there are many more by private venturers. The British Museum is making phonograph records of all of them, for many are dying. For a general survey of English colonial speech see Spoken English, by Thomas C. Trueblood,
Quarterly Journal of Speech
, Vol. XIX, 1933, pp. 513–21.