A Ton of Crap (31 page)

THINKING

The Brain
Thinking is a complex and abstract idea, but one thing that is not abstract is the location of where we think. In our brain, the cerebral hemispheres are divided into lobes, which specialize in performing different functions. The two frontal lobes are used when imagining, planning, and making reasoned arguments. Broca’s area on the left frontal lobe is responsible for transforming thoughts into words.

GRAPHS

Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are excellent for presenting and comparing data. The values are represented by rectangular bars that differ in height according to the values they represent. Whereas line graphs are used to show a change in time, bar graphs are used to show different amounts. Similar to line graphs, bar graphs also make use of the
x
and
y
axes, and bar graphs can be presented either horizontally or vertically.

THE EARTH’S LAYERS

The Upper Mantle
The layer underneath the crust and above the core is known as the mantle. Mantle rock makes up around 84 percent of the Earth’s volume. The mantle begins around 19 miles below the continental crust and 6 miles below the oceanic crust. It can be divided into two parts: the upper and lower mantle. In the upper mantle is the asthenosphere, which is involved in plate tectonic movement. Part of the lithosphere, the outermost shell of the planet, is also in the upper mantle.

ALBANIAN

Influences
The earliest language that Albanian borrowed from was Doric Greek, and from the second to the fifth centuries, Albanian also began absorbing Greek and Latin. Latin had the largest influence on the language. From the seventh to the ninth centuries, the language absorbed Southern Slavic and Proto-Romanian, a result of tribes settling in the Balkans.

THE CRUSADES

The Third Crusade
Also known as the King’s Crusade, the Third Crusade lasted from 1189 to 1192. The Third Crusade was an attempt to reconquer the Holy Land after it was retaken by Saladin. The king of France and the king of England ended their conflict and united to fight Saladin; however, they achieved little beyond capturing the city of Acre. As the king of France left, the king of England and Saladin eventually came to a truce in which Jerusalem would remain under Saladin’s control but unarmed Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the city.

THINKING

Sentience
Sentience is the ability to perceive, be conscious, experience, and feel.
Qualia
is the term used to describe the way things seem to someone. For example, the taste of a cookie, the redness of an apple, the pain of a cut, are all qualia. Sentience is the ability to have an experience with qualia.

GRAPHS

Pie Charts
Pie charts are very easy to use and do not require an
x
or
y
axis. They are used when representing categorical data or values in proportion to the whole. Essentially, a pie chart is a circle that is divided into segments that reflect the values or categories that they are supposed to represent.

THE EARTH’S LAYERS

The Lower Mantle
The lower mantle plays a key role in controlling the planet’s thermal evolution; it can be found 190 to 1,800 miles below the crust, with an average temperature of 5,400°F. The lower mantle is mostly made of perovskite, a magnesium silicate mineral, which can change into a high-pressure form.

ALBANIAN

Dialects
There are two dialects found in Albanian, Tosk and Gheg, and the two have diverged for at least a millennium. Gheg is spoken to the north of the Shkumbin River, and Tosk is spoken south of the river. The Tosk dialect is considered the official language of the country. There is a transitional language that is spoken in central Albania.

THE CRUSADES

The Fourth and Fifth Crusades
The Fourth Crusade lasted from 1202 to 1204 and was an attempt to once again conquer Jerusalem by going through Egypt. Instead of Jerusalem, however, the Crusaders sacked Constantinople and established the Latin Empire. The Fifth Crusade, from 1217 to 1221, was an attempt to conquer Jerusalem by defeating the Ayyubid Sultanate in Egypt. The Ayyubid Sultan launched an attack that would lead to the surrender of the crusaders, and an eight-year peace agreement was made.