A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (38 page)

Thus imitation is useless, fruitless, and harmful. The only sensible mode of life is to live according to oneself, which is also to practice the theory of non—action.

The Equality of Things

But if one can really live according to oneself, disregarding the inducements offered by others, that means that one is already able to get rid of what Hsiang-Kuo call the "trouble of preferring one thing to another. " (Ch. 1.) In other words, one is already able to understand the principle of the equality of things and to see things from a higher point of view. One is already on the royal road to the state of non-distinction of the undifferentiable whole.

In the second chapter of the Chuang—tzu, Chuang Tzu emphasized the theory of non—distinction, especially the non—distinction of right and wrong. In their Commentary, Hsiang-Kuo expound this theory with more eloquence. Thus to the saying of Chuang Tzu that the universe is a finger, all things are a horse," the Commentary observes: "in order to show that there is no distinction between right and wrong, there is nothing better than illustrating one thing with another. In so doing we see that all things agree in that they all consider themselves to be right and others to be wrong. Since they all agree that all others are wrong, hence in the world there can be no right; and since they all agree that they themselves are right, hence in the world there can be no wrong.

How can it be shown that this is so? If the right is really absolutely righl, in the world there should be none that considers il to be wrong. Tf the wrong is really absolutely wrong, in the world there should be none that considers it to be right. The fact that there are uncertainty between right and wrong, and a confusion in distinctions, shows that the distinctions between right and wrong are due to a partiality of view, and that all things are really in agreement. In our observation, we see this truth everywhere.

Therefore, the perfect man, knowing that the universe is a finger and all things are a horse, thus rests in great peace. All things function according to their nature, and enjoy themselves. [Between them] there is no distinction between right and wrong." (Ch. 2.)

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Absolute Freedom and Absolute Happiness

If one can transcend the distinctions between things, one can enjoy the absolute freedom and have the absolute happiness that arc described in the first chapter of the Chuang-tzu. In the many stories contained in this chapter, Chuang Tzu mentions the great roc bird, the small bird, the cicada, the small knowledge of the morning mushroom, whose life extends only to the same evening, the great knowledge of the old trees whose experience covers thousands of years, small officers of limited talents, and the philosopher Lieh Tzu who could ride on the wind. Regarding these stories, the Hsiang-Kuo Commentary says: If there is satisfaction for their natures, the roc has nothing to be proud of in comparison with the small bird, and the small bird has no desire for the Celestial Lake [the dwelling place of the roc]. Therefore, though there is a difference between the great and the small, their happiness is the same. (Ch. I.)

Their happiness, however, is only relative happiness. If things only enjoy themselves in their finite spheres, their enjoyment must also be finite. Thus in his first chapter, Chuang Tzu concludes his stories with one about the really independent man who transcends the finite and becomes one with the infinite, so that he enjoys infinite and absolute happiness. Because he transcends the finite and identifies himself with the infinite, he has "no self." Because he follows the nature of things and lets everything enjoy itself, he has no achievement. And because he is one with the Too, which is un— namable, he has "no name."

This idea is developed by the Hsiang-Kuo Commentary with clarity and eloquence: Everything has its proper nature, and that nature has its proper limitation. The differences between things are like those between small and great knowledge, short and long life....All believe in their own sphere and none is intrinsically superior to others." After giving different illustrations, Chuang Tzu concludes with the independent man who forgets his own self and its opposite, and who ignores all the differences. ' All things enjoy themselves in their own sphere, but the independent man has neither achievement nor name. Therefore, he who unites the great and the small is one who ignores the distinction between the great and the small. If one insists on the distinctions, the roc, the cicada, the small officer, and Lieh Tzu riding on the wind, are all troublesome things. He who equalizes life and death is one who ignores the distinction of life and death. If one insists on the distinction, the ta ch'un [an old tree] and the chrysalis, P'eng Tsu [a Chinese Methuselah] and the morning mushroom, all suffer early death. Therefore, he who makes excursion iirto the realm of non— distinction between great and small has no limitation. He who ignores the distinction of life and death has no

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terminal. But those whose happiness lies within the finite sphere will certainly suffer limitation.

Though they are allowed to make excursions, they are not ahle to he independent. (Ch. I.) In the first chapter, Chuang Tzu describes the independent man as one who chariots on the normality oi the universe, rides upon the transformation of the six elements, and makes excursion into the infinite.

On this the Hsiang-Kuo Commentary remarks: "The universe is the general name of all things. The universe has all things as its contents, and all things must take Tzu Jan Lthe natural] as their norm.

What is spontaneously so, and not made to be so, is the natural. The roc can fly in high places, the quail in low ones. The ta-ch'un tree can live for a long time, the mushroom for a short one. All these capacities are natural, and are not caused or learned. They are not caused to be so, but are naturally so; that is the reason why they are normal. Therefore to chariot on the normality of the universe is to follow the nature of things. To ride upon the transformation of the six dements is to make excursion along the road of change and evolution. If one proceeds in this way, where can one reach the end? If one chariots on whatever one meets, what will one be required to depend upon? This is the happiness and freedom of the perfect man who unites his own self with its opposite.

If one has to depend upon something, one cannot be happy, unless one gets hold of the thing upon which one depends. Although Lieh Tzu could pursue his way in such a fine manner, he still had to depend upon the wind, and the roc was even more dependent. Only he who makes no distinction between himself and other things and follows the great evolution, can really be independent and always free. He not only sets himself free, but also follows the nature of those who have to depend upon something, allowing them to have that something upon which they depend. When they have that upon which they depend, they all enjoy the Great Freedom. (Ch. I.)

In the Hsiang-Kuo system, the Tao is really nothing. In this system, T ien or T'ien Ti (literally "Heaven" or "Heaven and Earth," but here translated as the universe) becomes the most important idea.

T ien is the general name of things, and is thus the totality of all that is. To see things from the point of view of T ien and to identify oneself with T ien, is to transcend things and their differences, or, as the Neo—Taoists said, to transcend shapes and features.

Thus the Hsiang-Kuo Commentary, besides making important revisions in original Taoism, also expressed more articulately what in the Chuang-tzu is only suggestive. Those, however, who prefer suggestivencss to articulateness, would no doubt agree with a certain Ch an monk who remarked: People say that it was Kuo Hsiang who wrote a commentary on Chuang Tzu. I would say that it was Chuang Tzu who wrote a commentary on Kuo Hsiang. (See chapter one, page 12..)

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CHAPTER 20

NEO-TAOISM: THE SENTIMENTALISTS

IN their Commentary to the Chuang—tzu, Hsiang Hsiu and Kuo Hsiang gave a theoretical exposition of the man who has a mind or spirit transcending the distinctions of things and who lives "according to himself but not according to others. ' This quality of such a man is the essence of what the Chinese caA feng liu.

Feng Liu and the Romantic Spirit

In order to understand feng liu, we must turn to the Shih-shuo Hsin-yii or Contemporary Records of New Discourses (abbreviated as Shih-shuo), a work by Liu Yi-ch'ing (403-444), supplemented by a commentary by Liu Hsiin (463-511). The NeoTaoists and their Buddhist friends of the Chin dynasty were famous for what was known at the time as ch'ing t an, that is, pure or fine conversation. The art of such conversation consisted in expressing the best thought, which was usually Taoistic, in the best language and tersest phraseology. Because of its rather precious nature, it could be held only between friends of a comparable and rather high intellectual level, and hence it was regarded as one of the most refined of intellectual aclivilies. The Shih— shuo is a record of many such pure conversations and their famous participants. Through them, it gives a vivid picture of those people of the third and fourth centuries who were followers of the feng liu ideas. Ever since its compilation, therefore, it has been a major source for studying the feng liu tradition.

What, then, is the meaning of feng liu? It is one of those elusive terms which to the initiated conveys a wealth of ideas, but is most difficult to translate exactly. Literally, the two words that form it mean "wind and stream," which does not seem to help us very much. Nevertheless, they do, perhaps, suggest something of the freedom and ease which are some of the characteristics of the quality of feng liu.

I confess that I have not yet understood the full significance of the words

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romanticism or romantic in English, but I suspect that they are a fairly rough equivalent

of feng liu. Feng liu is chiefly connected with Taoism. This is one of the reasons why I have said in chapter two that the Confucianist and Taoist traditions in Chinese history are in some degree equivalent to the classical and romantic traditions in the West.

The Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 22O) and Chin (265-420) are not only the names of two different dynasties in Chinese history, but also, because of their very different social, political, and cultural characteristics, are designations of two different styles of literature and art, and of two different manners of living. The Han style and manner are ones of dignity and grandeur; those of the Chin are ones of elegance and freedom. Elegance is also one of the characteristics oifeng liu.

Yang Chu s Garden of Pleasure

Something must first be said here about the seventh chapter in the Taoist work known as the Lieh—tzu, a chapter titled Yang Chu (translated by Anton Forke as Yang Chu's Garden of Pleasure). As we have already seen in our chapter six, what is said in this "Yang Chu" chapter cannot represent the view of the genuine Yang Chu of ancient times.

The Lieh—lzu itself, indeed, is now considered by Chinese scholars as a work of the third century A.D. Hence its "Yang Chu" chapter must also be a production of this period. It accords well with the general trend of thought of that time, and is in fact an expression of one aspect of feng liu.

In the "Yang Chu chapter, a distinction is made between the external and the internal.

Thus the spurious "Yang Chu" is reported as saying: There are four things which do not allow people to have peace. The first is long life, the second is reputation, the third is rank, and the fourth is riches. Those who have these things fear ghosts, fear men, fear power, and fear punishment. They are called fugitives....Their lives are controlled by externals. But those who follow their destiny do not desire long life. Those who are not fond of honor do not desire reputation. Those who do not want power desire no rank.

And those who are not avaricious have no desire for riches. Of this sort of men it may be said that they live in accordance with their nature. ...They regulate their lives by internal things."

In another passage an imaginary conversation is recorded between Tzu-ch an, a famous statesman of the state of Cheng who lived in the sixth century B.C., and his two brothers. Tzu—eh an governed the state for three years and governed well. But his two brothers were out of his control; one of them was fond of feasting and the other of gallantry.

One day, Tzu-ch an spoke to his brothers, saying: "Those things in which man is superior to beasts and birds are his mental faculties. Through them he gets righteousness and propriety, and so glory and rank fall to his share. You are only moved by what excites your senses, and indulge only in licen-

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tious desires, endangering your lives and natures.... '

To this the brothers answered: "if one tries to set external things in order, these external things do not necessarily become well —ordered, and one s person is already given toil and trouble. But if one tries to set the internal in order, the external things do not necessarily fall into disorder, and one's nature becomes free and at ease. Your system of regulating external things will do temporarily and for a single kingdom, but it is not in harmony with the human heart. Our method of regulating what is internal, on the contrary, can be extended to the whole world, and [when it is extended] there is no need for princes and ministers."