A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (11 page)

In fhe above quotations, the Yang Sheng of the
Lii—shih Ch un-ch iu
has been proved by recent scholars to be Yang Chu, while the man who "for the great profit of the whole world, would not exchange one hair of his shank" must also be Yang Chu or one of his followers, because no other man of that time is known to have held such a principle. Putting these sources together, we can deduce that Yang Chu's two fundamental ideas were: "Each one for himself, and the despising of things and valuing of life. Such ideas are precisely the opposite of those of Mo Tzu, who held the principle of an all-embracing love.

The statement of Han Fei Tzu that Yang Chu would not give up a hair from his shank even to
gain
the entire world, differs somewhat from what Mencius says, which is that Yang Chu would not sacrifice a single hair even in order to
profit
the whole world. Both statements, however, are consistent with Yang Chu s fundamental ideas. The latter harmonizes with his doctrine

* See Anton Forke,
Yang Chit's Garden of Pleasure,
and James Legge,
The Chinese Classics,
Vol II,
Prolegomena,
pp.
91-9-IOO THE FIRST PHASE OF TAOISM:YANG CHU

of "each one for himself ; the former with that of "despising things and valuing life." Both may be said to be but two aspects of a single theory.

Illustrations of Yang Chu s Ideas

In Taoist literature, illustrations may be found for both the above mentioned aspects of Yang Chu's ideology. In the first chapter of the Chuang-tzu, there is a story about a meeting between the legendary sage—ruler Yao and a hermit named Hsu Yu. Yao was anxious to hand over his rule of the world to Hsu Yu, but the latter rejected it, saying: You govern the world and it is already at peace. Suppose I were to take your place, would I do it for the name? Name is but the shadow of real gain. Would I do it for real gain? The tit, building its nest in the mighty forest, occupies but a single twig. The tapir, slaking its thirst from the river, drinks only enough to fill its belly. You return and be quiet. F have no need of the world." Here was a hermit who would not take the world, even were it given to him for nothing.

Certainly, then, he would not exchange it for even a single hair from his shank. This illustrates Han Fei Tzu' s account of Yang Chu.

In the above mentioned chapter titled "Yang Chu" in the Lieh-tzu, there is another story which reads: Ch in Tzu asked Yang Chu: If by plucking out a single hair of your body you could save the whole world, would you do it? Yang Chu answered: The whole world is surely not to be saved by a single hair. Ch in Tzu said: But supposing it possible, would you do it? Yang Chu made no answer. Ch in Tzu then went out and told Meng-sun Yang. The latter replied: ' You do not understand the mind of the Master. I will explain it for you. Supposing by tearing off a piece of your skin, you were to get ten thousand pieces of gold, would you do it?' Ch' in Tzu said: I would. Meng—sun Yang continued: Supposing by cutting off one of your limbs, you were to get a whole kingdom, would you do it? For a while Ch in Tzu was silent. Then Meng-sun Yang said: ' A hair is unimportant compared with the skin.

A piece of skin is unimportant compared with a limb. But many hairs put together are as important as a piece of skin. Many pieces of skin put together are as important as a limb. A single hair is one of the ten thousand parts of the body. How can you disregard it?' " This is an illustration of the other aspect of Yang Chu s theory.

In the same chapter of the Lieh-tzu, Yang Chu is reported to have said: "The men of antiquity, if by injuring a single hair they could have profited the world, would not have done it. Had the world been offered to them as their exclusive possession, they would not have taken it. If everybody would refuse to pluck out even a single hair, and everybody would refuse to take the world as a gain, then the world would be in perfect order. We cannot be sure that this is really a saying of Yang Chu, but it sums up very well the Iwo aspects of his iheory, and the political philosophy of the early Taoists.

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Yang Chu s Ideas as Expressed in the Lao-tzu and Chuang—tzu

Reflections of Yang Chu's main ideas can be found in portions of the Lao-tzu and some chapters of the Chuang—lzu and the Lil—shih Ch un—ch i— u. In the latter work there is a chapter titled "The Importance of Self," in which it is said: Our life is our own possession, and its benefit to us is very great. Regarding its dignity, even the honor of being Emperor could not compare with it. Regarding its importance, even the wealth of possessing the world would not be exchanged for it. Regarding its safety, were we to lose it for one morning, we could never again bring it back. These three are points on which those who have understanding are careful." (I, 3.) This passage explains why one should despise things and value life. Even an empire, once lost, may some day be regained, but once dead, one can never live again.

The Lao-tzu contains passages expressing the same idea. For example: He who in his conduct values his body more than he does the world, may be given the world. He who in his conduct loves himself more than he does the world, may be entrusted with the world." (Ch. 13.) Or: "Name or person, which is more dear? Person or fortune, which is more important? (Ch. 44-) Here again appears the idea of despising things and valuing life.

In the third chapter of the Chuang-tzu, titled "Fundamentals for the Cultivation of Life, we read: When you do something good, beware of reputation; when you do something evil, beware of punishment. Follow the middle way and take this to be your constant principle. Then you can guard your person, nourish your parents, and complete your natural term of years." This again follows Yang Chu s line of thought, and, according to the earlier Taoists, is the best way to preserve one's life against the harms that come from the human world. If a man s conduct is so bad that society punishes him, this is obviously not the way to preserve his life. But if a man is so good in his conduct that he obtains a fine reputation, this too is not the way to preserve his life. Another chapter of the Chuang-tzu tells us: "Mountain trees are their own enemies, and the leaping fire is the cause of its own quenching.

Cinnamon is edible, therefore the cinnamon tree is cut down. Ch'i oil is useful, therefore the ch'i tree is gashed." (Ch. 4.) A man having a reputation of ability and usefulness will suffer a fate just like that of the cinnamon and ch'i Irees.

Thus in the Chuang-tzu we find passages that admire the usefulness of the useless. In the chapter just quoted, there is the description of a sacred oak, which, because its wood was good for nothing, had been spared the ax, and which said to someone in a dream: "For a long time I have been learning to be useless. There were several occasions on which I was nearly destroyed, but now I have succeeded in being useless, which is of the greatest use to me. If I were useful, could I have become so great? Again it is said that "the world knows only the usefulness of the useful, but does not know the usefulness of the useless." (Ch. 4.) To be useless is the way to preserve one'

IO4 , THE FIRST PHASE OF TAOISM:YANG CHU

s life. The man who is skillful in preserving life must not do much evil, but neither must he do much good. He must live midway between good and evil. He tries to be useless, which in the end proves of greatest usefulness to him.

Development of Taoism

In this chapter we have been seeing the first phase in the development of early Taoist philosophy.

Altogether there have been three main phases. The ideas attributed to Yang Chu represent the first.

Those expressed in the greater part of the Lao-tzu represent the second. And those expressed in the greater part of the Chuang—lzu represent the third and last phase. I say the greater part of the Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, because in the Lao-tzu there are also to be found ideas representing the first and third phases and in the Chuang-tzu ideas of the first and second phases. These two books, like many others of ancient China, are really collections of Taoist writings and sayings, made by differing persons in different times, rather than the single work of any one person.

The starting point of Taoist philosophy is the preservation of life and avoiding of injury. Yang Chu s method for so doing is to escape. This is the method of the ordinary recluse who flees from society and hides himself in the mountains and forests. By doing this he thinks he can avoid the evils of the human world. Things in the human world, however, are so complicated that no matter how well one hides oneself, there are always evils that cannot be avoided. There are times, therefore, when the method of "escaping' does not work.

The ideas expressed in the greater part of the Lao-tzu represent an attempt to reveal the laws underlying the changes of things in the universe. Things change, but the laws underlying the changes remain unchanging. Tf one understands these laws and regulates one's actions in conformity with them, one can then turn everything to one s advantage. This is the second phase in the development of Taoism.

Even so, however, there is no absolute guarantee. In the changes of things, both in the world of nature and of man, there are always unseen elements. So despite every care, the possibility remains that one will suffer injury. This is why the Lao-tzu says with still deeper insight: "The reason that I have great disaster is that I have a body. If there were no body, what disaster could there be? " (Ch. 13.) These words of greater understanding are developed in much of the Chuang-tzu, in which occur the concepts of the equalization of life with death, and the identity of self with others. This means to see life and death, self and others, from a higher point of view. By seeing things from this higher point of view, one can transcend the existing world. This is also a form of escape ; nol one, however, from society to mountains and forests, but rather from this world to another world. Here is the third and last phase of development in the Taoism of ancient times.

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All these developments are illustrated by a story which we find in the twentieth chapter of the Chuang-tzu, titled "The Mountain Tree." The story runs: "Chuang Tzu was traveling through the mountains, when he saw a great tree well covered with foliage. A tree—cutter was standing beside it, but he did not out it down. Chuang Tzu asked him the reason and he replied: 'It is of no use.' Chuang Tzu then said: 'By virtue of having no exceptional qualities, this tree succeeds in completing its natural span.

"When the Master (Chuang Tzu) left the mountains, he stopped at the home of a friend. The friend was glad and ordered the servant to kill a goose and cook it. The servant asked: 'One of the geese can cackle. The other cannot. Which shall I kill?' The Master said: 'Kill the one that cannot cackle.' Next day, a disciple asked Chuang Tzu the question: 'Yesterday the tree in the mountains, because it had no exceptional quality, succeeded in completing its natural span. But now the goose of our host, because it had no exceptional quality, had to die. What will be your position?

"Chuang Tzu laughed and said: My position will lie between having exceptional qualities and not having them. Yet this position only seems to be right, but really is not so. Therefore those who practice this method are not able to be completely free from troubles. If one wanders about with Too and Te (the Way and its spiritual power), it will be otherwise."'

Then Chuang Tzu went on to say that he who links himself with Too and Te is with the ancestor of things, using things as things, but not being used by things as things. When that is so, what is there that can trouble him? "

In this story, the first part illustrates the theory of preserving life as practiced by Yang Chu, while the second part gives that of Chuang Tzu. "Having exceptional quality' corresponds to the doing of good things, mentioned in the earlier quotation from the third chapter of the Chuang—Iza. "Having no exceptional quality" corresponds to the doing of bad things in that same quotation. And a position between these two extremes corresponds to the middle way indicated in that quotation. Yet if a man cannot see things from a higher point of view, none of these methods can absolutely guarantee him from danger and harm. To see things from a higher point of view, however, means to abolish the self. We may say that the early Taoists were selfish. Yet in their later development this selfishness became reversed and destroyed itself.

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CHAPTER 7

THE IDEALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: MENCIUS

ACCORDING to the Historical Records (ch. 74), Mencius (371 ?-l8o ? B.C.) was a native of the state of Tsou, in the present southern part of Shantung province in East China. He was linked with Confucius through his study under a disciple of Tzu-ssu, who in turn was Confucius' grandson. At that time, the Kings of Ch i, a larger state also in present Shantung, were great admirers of learning. Near the west gate of their capital, a gate known as Chi, they had established a center of learning which they called Chi—hsia, that is, below Chi. All the scholars living there were ranked as great officers and were honored and courted by having large houses built for them on the main road. This was to show to all the pensioned guests of the feudal lords that it was the state of Ch i that could attract the most eminent scholars in the world." ([bid.)