A History of Korea (23 page)

Kim Tae-mun, who served as governor of the Hansan (formerly Hanju) province in 704, was the author of a number of writings on Silla history and geography, such as
Kyerim chapch
ŏ
n,
or Tales of Silla;
Kos
ŭ
ng ch
ŏ
n,
or Biographies of Eminent Monks;
Hwarang segi,
or Chronicles of the Hwarang;
Ak pon,
or Book of Music; and
Hansan gi,
or Records of the Hansan Province. Although he studied in Tang China, Kim Tae-mun, a man of true-bone lineage, attempted to preserve traditional Silla culture rather than devote himself to the study of Chinese Confucianism. None of his works has survived, but his works contributed greatly to the writing of the later historical texts, such as Kim Pu-sik’s
Samguk sagi
and Iry
ŏ
n’s
Samguk yusa.
In unified Silla, then, Confucianism developed to the extent that it laid the groundwork for its future growth in the later Kory
ŏ
and Chos
ŏ
n dynasties.

In the late Silla period members of the hojok, who warmly welcomed S
ŏ
n Buddhism, also were interested in geomantic (
p’ungsu
in Korean,
fengsui
in Chinese) theories, that is, theories involving wind-and-water magic. The Buddhist monk Tos
ŏ
n greatly enhanced the appeal of geomancy and, thanks to his efforts, the Chinese concept of geomancy became intertwined with Buddhism. Tos
ŏ
n traveled throughout the nation, grasping its human geographical character from personal experience and laying the foundation of Korean geomantic studies. According to geomantic theories, the life force was generated by the interplay of
yin
(dark) and
yang
(light) and the five elements or powers (tree, fire, earth, metal, and water). Places where large quantities of the life
force converged were considered auspicious sites, and so individuals or nations would enjoy good fortune if they selected propitious sites for constructing villages, graves, and the like. An inauspicious site, on the other hand, would lead to misfortune. Tos
ŏ
n divined the auspiciousness and inauspiciousness of the topographical features of the Korean peninsula, and he predicted that Ky
ŏ
ngju would have bad luck and, instead, Kaes
ŏ
ng, Pyongyang, and Seoul would become the future centers of the nation. He also saw his nation in the shape of a ship and stressed that, just as a ship maintained its safety by keeping its balance, the regions of the country needed to maintain balance.

The geomantic theory influenced the rulers of the Kory
ŏ
and Chos
ŏ
n dynasties but not those of the Silla kingdom. Wang K
ŏ
n, the founder of the Kory
ŏ
dynasty, was a devotee of geomantic theories and, in his testament known as the
Hunyo sipcho,
or Ten Injunctions, he commanded his successors to follow the advice of the p’ungsu theories.

Geomantic theories influenced the Kory
ŏ
kingdom to such an extent that it chose Kaes
ŏ
ng as its capital, and made Pyongyang and Hanyang (Seoul) its
S
ŏ
gy
ŏ
ng,
or Western Capital, and
Nam-gy
ŏ
ng,
or Southern Capital, respectively. Geomancy has continued to influence Korean thinking until recent years. The p’ungsu theory appears to have been suited for those areas of the Korean peninsula where mountains and rivers conform to the theory. Throughout Korean history, therefore, geomantic considerations have played an important role in deciding such significant affairs of state as the selection of a national capital. But it has sometimes been used for political purposes, which has exacerbated certain regional conflicts. It is said, for example, that Wang K
ŏ
n, in his Ten In-junctions, labeled the area of Later Paekche, which had resisted him to the end, as a “perverse and rebellious land,” admonishing his successors not to allow the people from that area to enter government service.

Silla’s science and technology was at a high level. Astronomy, which is closely tied to astrology, was an important element of science in Silla, and the
Samguk sagi
is full of reportedly accurate records of solar eclipses, lunar eclipses, earth-quakes, appearance of comets, and abnormal weathers. The Silla people made serious astronomical observations, as astronomy was closely related to agriculture and there was a belief that natural calamities reflected popular unrest.

In unified Silla, mathematical knowledge greatly advanced and was put into practice in a variety of areas. The application of precise mathematical concepts
include the plan for the S
ŏ
kkuram grotto and the balanced proportions of the Tabo-t’ap, or Pagoda of Many Treasures, and the S
ŏ
kka-t’ap, or Pagoda of Shakyamuni, at Ky
ŏ
ngju’s Pulguk-sa, or Buddha Land Temple.
⁶

In Silla, the art of woodblock printing developed so greatly that it was used to disseminate Buddhist sutras and Confucian classics. A scroll of Dharani sutra, discovered within the S
ŏ
kka-t’ap in 1966, may have dated from before the erection of the pagoda in 751, making it the oldest printed material ever found in the world. Silla also displayed its skill in the manufacture of paper, and its science of printing and papermaking were inherited by the Kory
ŏ
kingdom, laying the foundation for its invention of metal printing and enabling the Kory
ŏ
kingdom to manufacture the best-quality paper in East Asia.

Korean arts flourished during Silla’s unified period, when its artistic creations were largely the products of Buddhism, including Buddhist temples, pagodas, temple bells, images of the Buddha, and stone lanterns. But these Buddhist objets d’art had a distinctive Korean style and made use of materials that differed from those used in other countries, particularly China.

As Buddhism became a veritable national faith, its influence on the arts and crafts in unified Silla was profound. The most typical representatives of unified Silla’s Buddhist arts are the Pulguk-sa temple at Ky
ŏ
ngju and its nearby S
ŏ
kkuram grotto, a World Heritage site. Both are said to have been built in 751 by Kim Tae-s
ŏ
ng, then the chungsi, or prime minister. But, in fact, they were erected and created with the king’s patronage. The Silla kings expended great sums to build Buddhist temples around the capital and throughout the country, and several government offices were established to maintain and repair these monasteries. At the time unified Silla’s strength, wealth, and artistic achievement reached its maximum, as demonstrated by the construction of the Pulguk-sa and S
ŏ
kkuram. The huge Pulguk-sa temple, which the Silla people regarded as an earthly embodiment of the “Buddha land,” is considered a masterpiece of architecture in its symmetry and beauty. Two magnificent stairways, a lower flight named the
Paekun-gyo,
or Bridge of White Clouds, and an upper flight known as the
Ch’
ŏ
ngun-gyo,
or Bridge of Azure Clouds—both of which symbolized the overpass rising to the Buddha land—lead to the entrance gate called the
Chaha-mun,
or Mauve Mist Gate. Passing over the entrance, one finds a pair of stone pagodas, the Tabo-t’ap and S
ŏ
kka-t’ap, standing opposite each other at the front yard of the
taeungj
ŏ
n,
the hall of Shakyamuni, the temple
proper. The two pagodas are suggestive of Indian rather than Chinese prototypes. All these structures display a mature, harmonious beauty.

The two pagodas, together with the three-storied Four-Lion Pagoda at the Hwa
ŏ
m-sa temple, located at present-day Kurye, South Ch
ŏ
lla province, and the three-storied pagoda at the ruins of the Kam
ŭ
n-sa temple near Ky
ŏ
ngju, are regarded as the finest examples of stone pagodas in unified Silla.

The Dharani sutra, printed between 706 and 751, and, as noted, the oldest woodblock printing found in the world, was brought to light during the restoration of the S
ŏ
kka-t’ap in 1966. Compared to those in China and Japan, Korea’s pagodas were made of unique construction materials. Whereas the emphasis in China was on brick and in Japan on wooden construction, Korea’s pagodas were constructed from granite.

The S
ŏ
kkuram grotto was modeled after the stone cave temples at Yunggang and Longmen in China. In China these Buddhist temples were cut into the face of natural rock cliffs, but the S
ŏ
kkuram is an entirely man-made stone grotto that enshrines the principal statue of the Buddha. The grotto has a rectangular antechamber, symbolizing the earth, and a circular interior chamber with a doomed ceiling, representing the sky. The S
ŏ
kkuram grotto was erected on the top of the T’oham-san (mountain) toward the east, thus commanding a glorious view of the East Sea. It is assumed that the people of Silla, with the aid of Buddha, were defending their nation from Japanese pirates, then on a rampage.

The S
ŏ
kkuram is widely admired for its unique sculpture, which may be described as a symphony of beauty in its entirety. The grotto houses the historic great stone statue of Shakyamuni Buddha in its inner sanctum, with the figure situated so that the rising sun over the East Sea strikes it in the middle of the forehead. The S
ŏ
kkuram also contains the 11-headed Goddess of Mercy (Avalokitesvara), the Bodhisattva of Wisdom and Intellect, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, the Brahma-Dava, and the ten Arhats, disciples of the Buddha, carved in relief in a semicircle on the surrounding wall of the interior chamber. The two
Inwang,
or Benevolent Kings, are carved on the walls of the antechamber, and the grotesque-looking Four Devas standing guard against sundry evil spirits along the passageway leading from the antechamber to the interior chamber.

Architecturally and artistically the S
ŏ
kkuram is taken to be a worldwide masterpiece. The width of its chambers, the height of its domed ceiling, and the size of its sculptures are all in perfect balance, attesting to the Silla people’s great technical skill as well as their sophisticated knowledge of mathematics.

Other famous sculptures include the stone statues of the Amitabha Buddha and the Maitreya Boddhisattva at the Kamsan-sa temple in Ky
ŏ
ngju, which indicate the increasing popularity among the populace of their beliefs in the Amitabha and the Maitreya. In the later period the construction of images of the Vairocana Buddha, a celestial Buddha interpreted as the Bliss Body of the Shakyamuni Buddha, won great popularity. Unlike those of the earlier period, many of these images were cast in iron.

In fashion in the later period of unified Silla were memorial stupas, moundlike structures preserving cremated remains of noted monks. Because S
ŏ
n Buddhism was popular among the local gentry at the time, memorial stupas to honor
s
ŏ
nsa,
or S
ŏ
n masters, were made in considerable numbers. The oldest known stupa for Monk Y
ŏ
mg
ŏ
was constructed in 790, but the best known stupa is Master Ch’
ŏ
lgam’s memorial for Toyun, the founder of the
Saja-san
sect, one of the Nine Mountain Sects of S
ŏ
n, at the Ssangbong-sa temple, located in present-day Hwasun, South Ch
ŏ
lla province. Accompanying the memorial stupa is a monument stone recording the S
ŏ
n master’s lifetime achievements. The inscriptions on these monuments are important as materials for the study of calligraphic styles of that age and as historical sources for the development of S
ŏ
n Buddhism.
⁷

Another form of Silla’s Buddhist arts is the castings of
p
ŏ
mjong,
or bronze bells. The oldest extant bell at the Sangw
ŏ
n-sa temple on Odae-san (mountain) dates back to 725, but the best known is the so-called Emille Bell, or the Pongd
ŏ
k-sa Bell, cast in 771 to posthumously honor King S
ŏ
ngd
ŏ
k. The bell, decorated with beautiful figures in low relief, is an outstanding relic of Silla Buddhism. It measures 7 feet, 6 inches (227 centimeters) in diameter and 11 feet (333 centimeters) in height, and weighs 18.9 tons, making it the largest surviving Korean bell. The Emille Bell is distinguished by the shape of the exquisitely wrought bell itself and the beauty of the flying angel-Buddha and lotus flowers carved in relief on its surface. The bell is particularly famous for its mysterious tone. The flying angel-Buddha and the sound of the bell symbolize the Silla people’s dearest wish to go to the Buddha land. The bell at the Hwangnyong-sa temple was said to have been enormous, weighing 500,000
k
ŭ
n,
or 300 tons, but it did not survive. The Silla bell has a unique shape, with a wind tube beside the hanger on the top that gives the bell its unique sound.

Tomb mounds also demonstrate the unique artistry of unified Silla. Before unification, the construction of tombs had been based on a vertical shaft for interment beneath an earth-covered mound of stones. After unification, influenced
by Kogury
ŏ
and Paekche tombs, the prevalent style of tomb architecture was characterized by a horizontal entrance shaft leading to a stone burial chamber. In some cases, the lower part of the much smaller earthen mound covering the burial chamber was posted by upright supporting slabs of stone, on which the 12 animal deities of the Zodiac were carved (rat, bull, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, chicken, dog, and pig). In other cases, the stone statues of the animal deities encircled the tomb. The former is represented by Kwaer
ŭ
ng, or the Hanging Tomb, thought to be the tomb of King W
ŏ
ns
ŏ
ng, and the latter is exemplified by the tomb of King S
ŏ
ngd
ŏ
k. At the time the people of Silla believed that these animal figures, all bearing weapons, would guard the soul of the deceased. The idea of a Zodiac of 12 animals was borrowed from China, but Silla used the animals uniquely in tomb architecture. Kwaer
ŭ
ng has additional stone statues of a civil official and a military official, both appearing to be Arabians, and of two lions. These uncommon stone images of Arabians suggest that at the time Silla and the Arab world were engaging in active human and material exchanges.