A History of Korea (8 page)

Kogury
’s contestation for power achieved some notable gains, and in fact the cessation of ongoing hostilities with the people on the mainland allowed Kogury
to turn its attention to expanding its reach into the peninsula. This transition was apparent in the
early fifth century, when the capital was moved from a locale in Manchuria to Pyongyang, former site of the headquarters of the Han commandery of Lelang and subsequently one of the regional capitals of Kogury
. Henceforth Pyongyang would cement its standing as a center of Korean civilization, even when it no longer functioned as the capital in subsequent dynasties. (North Korea’s claim of Pyongyang as the proper locale of Korea’s capital, then, is strongly supported by history.) Kogury
did not trample across the peninsula, however, and the balance of power was maintained when Paekche and Silla, by now the other two remaining kingdoms, entered into a semi-formal alliance in the fifth century to check Kogury
. Henceforth the borders between these three ebbed and flowed. Even Paekche, better known for its cultural achievements than for its martial prowess, managed to gain territorial victories. It was the prickly, relatively late-blooming kingdom of Silla, however, that began to enjoy advances in this tripartite rivalry by the middle of the sixth century, which would not have endangered Kogury
had it not been for the simultaneously threatening circumstances brewing in China.

In the year 581, after nearly four centuries of fragmentation, China was reunified by the Sui dynasty. Soon thereafter the Sui turned to one of the most nettlesome matters that had plagued Chinese polities, namely, what to do about the feisty kingdom to its northeast, Kogury
. The early years of the Sui witnessed an effort on both sides to establish a working relationship, but soon the age-old mistrust, coupled with internal developments within Kogury
, fueled a downward spiral in relations. As with its drives to extend the Grand Canal and to fortify the Great Wall, the Sui dynasty took a heavy-handed approach to the Korea question. And as with these other campaigns, the efforts to conquer Kogury
would contribute to the short life span of the Sui polity itself. In response to Kogury
’s advances into the western banks of the Liao River, the first Chinese invasion attempt came in 598, amassing a force of 300,000 naval and ground soldiers that became bogged down in bad weather and worse luck on their way to the peninsula.

The heavy losses suffered by the Sui forces in 598 would pale in comparison to the calamities of the next major invasion attempt in 612, which would end with defeat at the Battle of Salsu River.
The Chinese force mobilized for this campaign in the early part of the year was staggering in scale: 1,133,800 in soldiers alone, not counting the accompanying forces to move and feed them. The historical records recount that the original six divisions of fighters marching together stretched for thirty miles. These armies managed eventually to overcome the Kogury
forces in crossing the Liao River and penetrating the Kogury
foothold in the Liaodong region of Manchuria. The Chinese, however, suffered enormous casualties and other losses (through, for example, sickness and runaways), enabling Kogury
not only to stave off conquest but also to inflict severe damage to the attackers. In its siege of the Kogury
capital of Pyongyang, the Sui forces, severely weakened in morale and supplies, penetrated the outer walls of the city, but the Kogury
defenders held off the attackers long enough to negotiate a peace settlement. This agreement would ostensibly bring about Kogury
’s capitulation and entrance into a subordinate tributary relationship with the Sui emperor, in return for Chinese withdrawal from the peninsula.