A History of Korea (57 page)

Observations from the Countryside
typified a flurry of such publications in the mid-nineteenth century. Biographical compilations of lower status groups, including a work that had appeared a decade earlier authored by Cho H
iryong himself, were published in tandem with a growing poetry movement headed by non-aristocratic literary figures like Yu and Cho. In turn, this literary movement partook in a trend that figured prominently in the latter half of the Chos
n dynasty: a greater awareness of the plight of the common people through the increasing expression of their voices in popular cultural forms, from novels to music, dance, and painting. The most well-known folk stories today in Korea, in fact, originated in this era, crafted and transmitted through both written and oral means. The flourishing of these cultural expressions in the late Chos
n era also presents a treasure trove of clues about the everyday lives of the people, as well as subtle digs at the injustices and sorrows of the hereditary social hierarchy. Literature and art thus expressed discontent in a way that circumvented the political and social structures of authority, until it became a palpable groundswell of challenges to the status quo.

TALES OF THE PEOPLE

Little wonder, then, that the adventures of Robin Hood-like righteous bandits held a prominent place in this body of literature. Such tales provided a scenario that, on the one hand, espoused the orthodox values of righteousness and benevolence, and, on the other, addressed the social yearnings of lower status groups through escapist fantasy involving heroic exploits. One such story was
The Tale of Hong Kiltong
, centered on the story of Hong, a concubine’s son abused by both his family and society at large due to his birth status. Unable to endure the rampant prejudice against him, he runs away and leads a group of bandits that attack corrupt officials and distribute the booty to those exploited by them. This story ends with Hong and his followers settling into a kind of socialist utopia without hierarchies and discrimination. In written form,
The
Tale of Hong Kiltong
, which appeared in the early seventeenth century, might have represented the first Korean novel in the vernacular. Clearly, however, the story did not originate with its putative author, H
Kyun, but rather had circulated since the times of a real historical figure named Hong Kiltong in the fifteenth century.
The legendary elaboration on his life probably drew also from a similar story involving another, better-documented bandit, Im Kk
kch
ng, of the early sixteenth century. Im’s adventures were similar, but his background was even lower than that of Hong Kiltong: Im came from the social outcast group of butchers, tanners, and other “unclean” people.

Another marginalized group, namely women—or, more often, girls—also appeared prominently in the popular tales circulating in the late Chos
n. Like those of the righteous bandits, these stories of virtuous women also appealed to the Confucian ethos propagated by the elite. That these stories’ protagonists were females from lower backgrounds showed that such values had penetrated the masses while also promoting these common people’s humanity and goodness. The most famous such story is
The Tale of Ch’unhyang
. Ch’unhyang, the teenage daughter of a courtesan concubine, falls in love with and betroths the son of the local county magistrate. While her beloved returns to Seoul and becomes a successful young official, she endures a series of hardships stemming from the next magistrate’s evil cravings for her in expectation that she, like her mother, would serve her “duties.” Ch’unhyang, though, resists with her insistence that she remain faithful to her husband despite her social background, and in the end her lover returns as a secret government inspector and rescues her just before she is to be executed. The
Tale of Simch’
ng
was another popular narrative of a virtuous woman who demonstrated the core Confucian values of filial piety, loyalty, and sacrifice. Simch’
ng, having acted on her belief that she could cure her father’s blindness by sacrificing her own life, is instead rescued from the underworld and delivered intact to the king, who falls in love with her and marries her. The story ends with a joyous reunion with her father, whose sight is restored. Like Ch’unhyang, the reward of reunion comes from Simch’
ng’s faithfulness to her Confucian duties. The larger message of cosmic justice arriving through good acts also drew from Buddhist undercurrents as well as from the centrality of a common woman overcoming her tribulations despite the odds arrayed against her. Indeed, these latter narrative elements are the most compelling and likely contributed most to the popularity of these stories.