A Disability History of the United States (31 page)

21.
Laughlin,
Eugenical Sterilization,
294.

22.
Terry,
An American Obsession,
82; Laughlin,
Eugenical Sterilization,
446–47.

23.
Jonathan Katz, ed.,
Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA
(New York: Harper Colophon, 1976), 143.

24.
George Chauncey, “From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: The Changing Medical Conceptualization of Female ‘Deviance,’” in
Passion and Power: Sexuality in History
, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons, with Robert A. Padgug (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992): 105; Douglas Baynton, “Disability and the Justification of Inequality in American History,” in
The New Disability History: American Perspectives,
ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 2001).

25.
Buck v. Bell, 274 US 200 (1927); Lombardo,
Three Generations, No Imbeciles
; Anna Stubblefield, “‘Beyond the Pale’: Tainted Whiteness, Cognitive Disability, and Eugenic Sterilization,”
Hypatia
22, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 162–81; Stephen Jay Gould, “Carrie Buck’s Daughter,”
Natural History
93 (July 1984): 14–18.

26.
Dr. William Spratling, “An Ideal Colony for Epileptics and the Necessity for the Broader Treatment of Epilepsy,”
American Medicine
, August 24, 1901, 287.

27.
Goodheart, “Rethinking Mental Retardation: Education and Eugenics in Connecticut, 1818–1917,”
Journal of the History of Medicine & Allied Sciences
59, no. 1 (2004): 103.

28.
Laura Skandera Trombley, “‘She Wanted to Kill’: Jean Clemens and Postictal Psychosis,”
American Literary Realism
37, no. 3 (Spring 2005): 225, 234; Michael Sheldon,
Mark Twain: The Man in White, His Final Years
(New York: Random House, 2010); Karen Lystra,
Dangerous Intimacy: The Untold Story of Mark Twain’s Final Years
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 95.

29.
Harry Hummer, “Insanity Among the Indians,”
American Journal of Insanity
69 (January 1913): 613–23; Todd Leahy, “The Canton Asylum: Indians, Psychiatrists, and Government Policy, 1899–1934” (PhD diss., Oklahoma State University, 2004), 52–76.

30.
Pemina Yellow Bird, “Wild Indians: Native Perspectives on the Hiawatha Asylum for Insane Indians,” available at the website of the National Empowerment Center,
http://www.power2u.org
, 9; Zitkala-Sa,
American Indian Stories
(1921; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 55–56.

31.
Scott Riney, “Power and Powerlessness: The People of the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians,”
South Dakota History
27, nos. 1–2 (Spring/Summer 1997): 56–59; Diane T. Putney, “The Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, 1902–1934,”
South Dakota History
14, no. 1 (1984): 17–20; Yellow Bird, “Wild Indians”; Bradley Soule and Jennifer Soule, “Death at the Hiawatha Asylum for Insane Indians [1908–1933],”
South Dakota Journal of Medicine
56, no. 1 (January 2003): 15–18.

32. “‘Sane’ Indians Held in Dakota Asylum,”
New York Times
, October 15, 1933.

33.
Susan Burch, “‘Dis-membered’ Pasts: Histories of Removals, Institutions, and Community Lives,” paper given at the January 2012 American Historical Association meeting. Cited with permission.

34.
Putney, “The Canton Asylum,” 28.

35.
Martin Summers, “‘Suitable Care of the African When Afflicted with Insanity’: Race, Madness, and Social Order in Comparative Perspective,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
84 (2010): 70; Matthew Gambino, “‘The Savage Heart beneath the Civilized Exterior’: Race, Citizenship, and Mental Illness in Washington, DC, 1900–1940,”
Disability Studies Quarterly
28, no. 3 (Summer 2008). See also: Matthew Gambino, “‘These Strangers within Our Gates’: Race, Psychiatry, and Mental Illness among Black Americans at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in Washington, DC, 1900–1940,”
History of Psychiatry
19 (2008): 387–408. Other scholars have examined the relationship between public health policies, US imperialism, and racial segregation: Samuel Kelton Roberts Jr.,
Infectious Fear: Politics, Disease, and the Health Effects of Segregation
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Michelle T. Moran,
Colonizing Leprosy: Imperialism and the Politics of Public Health in the United States
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Natalia Molina,
Fit to Be Citizens? Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).

36.
Todd Benson, “Blinded with Science: American Indians, the Office of Indian Affairs, and the Federal Campaign against Trachoma, 1924–1927,” in
Medicine Ways: Disease, Health, and Survival among Native Americans
, ed. Clifford E. Trafzer and Diane Weiner (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2001), 54, 62.

37.
Ibid., 63, 65, 67.

38.
John Fabian Witt,
The Accidental Republic: Crippled Workingmen, Destitute Widows, and the Remaking of American Law
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 24, 38.

39.
Crystal Eastman,
Work Accidents and the Law
(Pittsburgh, PA: Russell Sage Foundation, 1910), 146.

40.
Ibid., 146, 148.

41.
Ibid., 146, 149.

42.
Ibid., 227.

43.
Witt,
The Accidental Republic,
3; Mark Aldrich,
Death Rode the Rails: American Railroad Accidents and Safety, 1828–1965
(Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 2, 185; John Williams-Searle, “Cold Charity: Manhood, Brotherhood, and the Transformation of Disability” in
The New Disability History: American Perspectives
, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 157–86; John Williams-Searle, “Courting Risk: Disability, Masculinity, and Liability on Iowa’s Railroads, 1868–1900,”
Annals of Iowa
58 (Winter 1999): 27–77; Shelton H. Stromquist,
A Generation of Boomers: The Pattern of Railroad Labor Conflict in Nineteenth-Century America
(Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993).

44.
Witt,
The Accidental Republic,
27; Allan Kraut,
Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the “Immigrant Menace”
(New York: Basic Books, 1994), 172–78, 180; Claudia Clark,
Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, 1910–1935
(Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1997); Jill E. Cooper, “Keeping the Girls on the Line: The Medical Department and Women Workers at AT&T, 1913–1940,”
Pennsylvania History
64, no. 4 (1997): 490–508.

45.
Amy M. Hamburger, “The Cripple and His Place in the Community,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
77 (May 1918): 36–37.

46.
Ibid., 41, 46.

47.
Ana Carden-Coyne, “Ungrateful Bodies: Rehabilitation, Resistance, and Disabled American Veterans of the First World War,”
European Review of History
14, no. 4 (2007): 546. For more on disability and World War I, as well as adaptive technologies, see: Scott Gelber, “‘Hard-Boiled Order’: The Reeducation of Disabled WWI Veterans in New York City,”
Journal of Social History
39, no. 1 (2005): 161–80; Walter K. Hickel, “Medicine, Bureaucracy, and Social Welfare: The Politics of Disability Compensation for American Veterans of World War I,” in
The New Disability History: American Perspectives
, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 236–67; Michael J. Lansing, “‘Salvaging the Man Power of America’: Conservation, Manhood, and Disabled Veterans During World War I,”
Environmental History
14, no. 1 (January 2009): 32–56; Beth Linker, “Feet for Fighting: Locating Disability and Social Medicine in First World War America,”
Social History of Medicine
20, no. 1 (2007): 91–109; Beth Linker,
War’s Waste: Rehabilitation in World War One
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011); Edward Slavishak, “Artificial Limbs and Industrial Workers’ Bodies in Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh,”
Journal of Social History
37, no. 2 (Winter 2003): 365–88.

48.
“Future Ship Workers: A One-Armed Welder,” 1919, Exhibit poster showing two scenes in which men with partial arm amputations are taught welding, Reproduction Number: LC-USZC4–7461, Call Number: POS—WWI—US, no. 32 (C size) [P&P], Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.

49.
“The disabled man who is profitably employed is no longer handicapped,” 1919, Exhibit poster, text only, calling for the extension of veterans’ benefits to all injured and disabled citizens, Reproduction Number: LC-USZC4–7379 (color film copy transparency), Call Number: POS—WWI—US, no. 38 (C size) [P&P], Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC.

50.
Calvin Coolidge, “1923 State of the Union Address.”

1.
Robert Cohen, ed.,
Dear Mrs. Roosevelt: Letters from Children of the Great Depression
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 232–33.

2.
Ibid., 233–34.

3.
Paul K. Longmore and David Goldberger, “The League of the Physically Handicapped and the Great Depression: A Case Study in the New Disability History,”
Journal of American History
87, no. 3 (2000): 904, 905, 907.

4.
Robert F. Jefferson, “‘Enabled Courage’: Race, Disability, and Black World War II Veterans in Postwar America,”
Historian
65, no. 5 (2003): 1103, 1121.

5.
“Deaf” is capitalized here in the context of the self-defined cultural community, and lowercased in references to the physical condition.

6.
For more on the Deaf community in this period, see Susan Burch,
Signs of Resistance: American Deaf Cultural History, 1900 to 1942
(New York: New York University Press, 2002); Michael Reis, “Student Life at the Indiana School for the Deaf During the Depression Years,” in
Deaf History Unveiled: Interpretations from the New Scholarship,
ed. John Vickrey Van Cleve (Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1993), 198–223.

7.
Myron Uhlberg,
Hands of My Father: A Hearing Boy, His Deaf Parents, and the Language of Love
(New York: Bantam Books, 2008), 125–26.

8.
Barbara H. Baskin, “The Impact of Disability on Employment Opportunities in the Depression of the 1930s,” in
The Unemployed (1930–1932)
, ed. Alex Baskin (New York: Archives of Social History, 1975), 18; David Shannon,
The Great Depression
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1960), 163–71. In this case the WPA interviewer did not know American Sign Language. Most of the interview was conducted via writing.

9.
Uhlberg,
Hands of My Father,
31.

10.
Burch,
Signs of Resistance
, 120–28.

11.
Ibid., 126.

12.
Ibid., 35–39. See also: Carolyn McCaskill, Ceil Lucas, Robert Bayley, and Joseph Hill,
The Hidden Treasure of Black ASL: Its History and Structure
(Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2002).

13.
For a lovely chronicle of life at the North Carolina State School for the Colored Blind and Deaf, see: Mary Herring Wright,
Sounds Like Home: Growing Up Black and Deaf in the South
(Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1999); Kim E. Nielsen, ed.,
Helen Keller: Selected Writings
(New York: New York University Press, 2005), 183–84.

14.
Monika Deppen-Wood, Mark R. Luborsky and Jessica Scheer, “Aging, Disability and Ethnicity: An African-American Woman’s Story,” in
The Cultural Context of Aging,
2nd ed., ed. Jay Sokolovsky (Westport, CN: Bergin and Garvey, 1997), 444.

15.
R. J. Altenbaugh, “Where Are the Disabled in the History of Education? The Impact of Polio on Sites of Learning,”
History of Education
35, no. 6 (November 2006): 710. For more on the history of polio and the experiences of polio survivors, see: Daniel J. Wilson,
Living with Polio: The Epidemic and Its Survivors
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Daniel J. Wilson,
Polio: Biographies of Disease
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2009); Naomi Rogers,
Dirt and Disease: Polio Before FDR
(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992); Susan Richards Shreve,
Warm Springs: Traces of a Childhood at FDR’s Polio Haven
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007); Anne Finger,
Elegy for a Disease: A Personal and Cultural History of Polio
(New York: St. Martin’s, 2006).

16.
Daniel J. Wilson, “Psychological Trauma and Its Treatment in the Polio Epidemics,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
82, no. 4 (Winter 2008): 871.

17.
Altenbaugh, “Where Are the Disabled?” 721; Sucheng Chan,
In Defense of Asian American Studies: The Politics of Teaching and Program Building
(Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 35–36.

18.
For more on FDR as well as an analysis of the implications of the erasure of his disability, see: Hugh Gregory Gallagher,
FDR’s Splendid Deception
(New York: Dodd Mead, 1994); Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “The FDR Memorial: Who Speaks from the Wheelchair?”
Chronicle of Higher Education
, January 26, 2001, B11–B12; Amy L. Fairchild, “The Polio Narratives: Dialogues with FDR,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
75, no. 3 (2001): 488–534; John Duffy, “Franklin Roosevelt: Ambiguous Symbol for Disabled Americans,”
Midwest Quarterly
29, no. 1 (1987): 113–35.

19.
Daniel J. Wilson, “Polio,” in
Encyclopedia of American Disability History
, vol. 2, ed. Susan Burch (New York: Facts on File, 2009), 725–29. For more on Kenny, see: Naomi Rogers, “‘Silence Has Its Own Stories’: Elizabeth Kenny, Polio, and the Culture of Medicine,”
Social History of Medicine
21 (2008): 145–61.