A Brief History of the Celts (8 page)

In the same area in 1879 another royal grave was excavated in Kleinaspergle but the central chamber proved to have been plundered. The original grave had a height of 6 metres and diameter of 60
metres. Indications were that this was a tomb of someone of great significance. In a neighbouring chamber
the grave robbers had missed a richly endowed tomb with jewellery
and drinking vessels, including two Attic dishes from Greece and some imported pottery dating from
c.
450
BC
; these were decorated by Celtic craftsmen with layers
of gold foil. All the finds from the area are now in the Würtembergisches Landesmuseum in Stuttgart.

One of the best-known ancient Celtic royal centres is at Heuneburg, on the west bank of the Danube, in the Sigmaringen district. It was occupied from the Bronze Age down to the Middle Ages, but
reached a peak of importance in the sixth and fifth centuries
BC
when the royal centre covered an area of 3 hectares enclosed by fortified walls, some standing nearly 4
metres high. Nearby were several royal grave mounds including that of Hohmichele, one of the biggest Celtic grave mounds in Central Europe.

Hohmichele lies 1.5 kilometres west of Heuneburg. The mound was 14 metres high and 80 metres in diameter. During 1937–38 archaeologists found a central grave chamber, lined with wooden
boards, but sadly its contents had almost vanished through grave robbers. Around it were lesser graves among which was the intact grave of a man and a woman found with a four-wheeled wagon and
harness and many utensils and items of jewellery. However, many of the most prominent graves have fallen victim to grave robbers over the centuries.

Some graves have not yet been excavated, such as that at Hohenasperg, a hill west of Ludwigsburg, regarded as the site of one of the most important early Celtic kingdoms and near many princely
graves of the late Hallstatt and early La Tène periods. The reason why no archaeological excavation has taken place is because the site has been extensively built over.

Some of the best princely graves of the La Tène period are at Rodenbach, dating to the fifth century
BC
. Here, the royal corpse had golden rings on his arms and
fingers, and weapons and utensils were also discovered. These are now in the
Historisches Museum der Pfalz. Schwarzenbach, excavated in 1849, produced two princely graves
containing golden jewellery, dishes, weapons, gold masks and other riches. Most of the finds have mysteriously disappeared, probably looted from Berlin in 1945. Two more graves found at
Wesikirkchen, in Merzig-wadern in the Saar, and dated to the fifth/fourth centuries
BC
, also revealed some rich material which is now in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn
and the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Trier.

Royal graves have not been discovered in such profusion in Britain but this might well be due to prolonged ravaging of sites, grave robbing and building. One of the most exciting finds was made
at Deal, in Kent, where the grave of an adult male, buried
c.
200–100
BC
, was recently excavated. He had been buried with a shield, too fragmentary to
restore, although bronze decorations and ornamentations revealed a characteristic Celtic shape. He also had a sword. What was more exciting was that he wore a crown, also of bronze. Archaeologists
have, so far, been nervous of identifying him as a king, in spite of the crown, wondering whether he might be simply a warrior priest. It would be doubtful if a person other than a king wore such
headgear.

We can see from just these few examples of royal graves of the early Celtic period the power of the ancient Celtic kings. There is one Celtic area which, hitherto, has failed to yield
discoveries matching the magnificent Hallstatt and La Tène princely burials on the Continent, and that is Ireland. There seems no trace of chariot burials at all. However, Irish records show
that in pre-Christian times there were ‘royal cemeteries’ in various parts of the country for the interment of kings and their families. In the remarkable
Senchus na Relec
(
History of Cemeteries
), contained in
Leabhar na hUidri
, compiled
c.
AD
1100, we are told that Croghan was called
Relig na Ríg
(Burial Place of the Kings). It was situated near Tulsk, Co. Roscommon, the seat of the kings of Connacht.

The old records also state that kings and chieftains were buried in varied ways, some lying flat, others sitting, but often in a standing posture, arrayed in full battle
gear with shield and weapons and with their face turned towards the territories of their enemies.

When can we begin to put names to the early Celtic kings? Unfortunately, not until the start of the sixth century
BC
, if we ignore the Irish king lists and genealogies.
We shall come to these in a moment. On the Continent, however, the Greeks give us the name of Arganthonios, the Celtic king who made a trade agreement with the Greek merchants of Phocis. His people
exploited the silver mines in southern Iberia and his name has the Celtic root for ‘silver’ in it. Later Roman historians speak of Ambicatus, the sixth-century
BC
king of the Bituriges, who they claimed dominated the Celtic tribal kingdoms north of the Alps. Ambicatus’ name translates as ‘He who gives battle all round’. We
also know of his nephews, whom he sent to seek new lands to settle – Bellovesus (He who can kill) and Segovesus (He who can conquer). Then we come to Brennus, the leader of the Senones, the
conqueror of Rome during 390
BC
. But does his name imply ‘king’ (from
brennin
) or is it a form of Bran meaning ‘raven’? Brennus had exactly
the same name as the main leader of the Celtic invading army which sacked Delphi in 279
BC
.

We know the names of Aneroestes and Concolitanus who commanded the Celts in the events which led to their greatest defeat on the Italian peninsula in 222
BC
at Telamon.
We know of Viridomarus who perished in single combat with the consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus and whose name derives from
viro
(man) and
marus
(great). He called himself a
‘son of Rhenus’, which made scholars leap to the conclusion that he was a mercenary from the Rhine. They overlook the fact that the Celtic name Rhenus was also given to a river in the
Po valley – the Reno. Judging from the accounts, Viridomarus appeared to be the ruler of the Insubres of the Milan area. He
must not be confused with another
Viridomarus who was an Aeduan leader and rival to Eporedorix (King of horsemen) in Julius Caesar’s time.

We know the names of Iberian Celtic kings as well, such as Avaros whose capital was Numantia and who valiantly held out against the Roman siege in 153
BC
. His successor
was Rhetogenes, a name which seems to imply that he was of the ‘ancestry of the wheel’, perhaps a reference to divine ancestry of the wheel, or solar, god. And there is Virithos of the
Lusitani whose name seems to imply a ‘reborn man’ (
viri
, man,
athios
, reborn, recognisable in the old Irish
athgainiur
, I am reborn).

There was a powerful ‘over king’ of southern Britain called Cassivellaunus; either he took his name from his tribe or vice versa. The name means ‘Lover of Belenus’, the
god. His power is clear from the fact that he was given command by all the petty kings of southern Britain to meet Julius Caesar’s second attempt at invasion and conquest in 54
BC
.

But now other names are emerging and ones we can put more flesh on. There is Vercingetorix, son of Celtillus (Great King of Heroes), who was acknowledged king of an alliance of the Gaulish
peoples in their struggle against Caesar. After his initial success, forcing Caesar to retreat for the first time in his military career, Vercingetorix’ forces were trapped in Alesia and he
surrendered. Taken to Rome, he was kept for years in an underground prison before being ritually slaughtered to celebrate Caesar’s triumph over the Gauls. It may also be remembered that
Cingetorix (King of Heroes) was one of four British Celtic kings, of the Cantii, who came to Caesar’s camp in southern Britain. The other kings of the Cantii who met Caesar were Carvilius,
Taximagulus and Segovax.

It is from Caesar, of course, that we know the names of many of the Gaulish kings including Diviciacus, pro-Roman king of the Aedui who addressed the Roman Senate in 61
BC
. The name appears to mean ‘Avenger’. (He is not to be confused with another Diviciacus, a powerful king of the
Suessiones ruling about 100
BC
and minting his own coins.) Diviciacus’ anti-Roman brother, Dumnorix (King of the World), was held hostage by Caesar and cut down by his soldiers while trying to
escape.

Deiotaros I of Galatia proved to be one of the most politically adept of Celtic kings. ‘The Divine Bull’ ruled the three united tribes of Celtic Galatia from his fortress at Blucium,
where he once entertained Julius Caesar; he survived many of the internal squabbles of the Roman republic to keep his kingdom fairly independent before he died
c.
41
BC
aged about eighty.

The ‘Belenus’ name continues with the famous Cunobelinus, the Hound of Belenus made even more famous by Shakespeare as Cymbeline. Cunobelinus succeeded Tasciovanos
c.
AD
10; under his rule London grew to prominence as a trading port and Britain became a leading commercial centre. Cunobelinus never sought Roman friendship but there is no
record of his doing anything to excite Roman enmity. He was powerful, issuing his own coinage, like his predecessors, and it was only on his death in about
AD
40 that Rome
decided to seize its chance and attempt a conquest. Many of the petty British kings had argued againt Cunobelinus’ son Caractacus being his successor, including Caractacus’ own
brothers, Togodumnus and Adminius. They were joined by another king called Bericus (perhaps Verica on British coins) who went to Rome to persuade the emperor to set them up in his place. Such
traitors were the diplomatic excuse Rome needed for the invasion of Britain.

Caractacus (Caradog), acknowledged as over-king of southern Britain during the Claudian invasion of the country, is one of the more romantic Celtic kings, holding out for nine years against the
might of the invading Roman legions before being betrayed by a Celtic queen named Cartimandua and taken, with his family, in chains to Rome. His eloquence saved their lives and he was sentenced to
live in exile in the city.

Cartimandua (Sleek Pony) was another fascinating Celtic ruler. She was queen of the Briganti (Exalted Ones) who occupied the land stretching across what is now northern
England from the Irish Sea to the North Sea. This was a tribal confederation. She had allied it to Rome following the conquest of the southern British tribes. She divorced her husband Venutius, and
married his charioteer. The Romans had to send armies several times to help her fight against Venutius and his allies. Eventually the power of the Briganti was smashed. Unfortunately, we do not
know the fate of Cartimandua.

Perhaps one of the most famous early Celtic rulers was Boudicca, whose name is translated as ‘Victory’ and Latinised as Boadicea, the queen of the Iceni in what is now East Anglia.
In
AD
60, having been provoked by the arrogance of a Roman official who had had her flogged and her two daughters raped, Boudicca led a mass uprising against the Romans. Her
initial victories were devastating. She annihilated the IX Hispania Legion and sacked and destroyed the Roman colonial capital at what is now Colchester and their trading centres at London and St
Albans. However, the Romans regrouped and won a devastating victory over the British Celts. Although Boudicca was never captured, reports had it that she and her two daughters took poison.

When Agricola attempted to conquer northern Britain, or Caledonia, he encountered a king named Calgacos (Swordsman). The historian Tacitus puts a speech into Calgacos’ mouth before the
battle of Mons Graupius which is often quoted for the line, ‘they made a desert and called it peace’.

In the north-west fringes of Europe, Celtic kingdoms survived until the late medieval period, although their conquerors tried to disguise the fact by giving the kings a variety of titles from
duke to prince to earl. The last king of Cornwall seems to have been a Howell who surrendered to Athelstan in
AD
931. James VI of Scotland, on the death of Elizabeth I in
1603, agreed with alacrity to become James I of England. Llywellyn, the penultimate ruler of Wales, was killed by English troops at Cilmeri in 1282. His brother Dafydd ruled
for only a few months before being captured and beheaded and, by the Statute of Rhuddlan, in 1284, Wales was annexed to the English crown. Francis II of Brittany had to surrender to the French King
Charles VIII at St Aubin-du-Cormier; while his daughter Anne reasserted Breton independence for a while, she was inevitably faced with a marriage to Charles and the union of the crowns of Brittany
and France.

In 1541 Henry VIII made himself king of Ireland and forced the Irish royal families to surrender their titles in a policy called ‘surrender and regrant’. The kings (the office of
high king had already vanished) had to surrender their title and lands and were then granted the title of ‘earl’ together with some of their land back as a fiefdom from Henry as feudal
king. In July 1543, for example, Murrough O’Brien, 57th King of Thomond, and direct descendant of the famous high king Brian Boru, surrendered to Henry at Greenwich. In return he was created
Earl of Thomond and Baron Inchiquin. Conor O’Brien, 18th Baron Inchiquin, still lives on the family estates.

Other Irish kings were less fortunate. Donal IX The MacCarthy Mór, last regnant King of Desmond and titular King of the two Munsters, fought on, as did his family. They never surrendered
and so did not enjoy titles and estates. Similarly, the O’Neills of Ulster, finally defeated, had to flee abroad where their descendants still live in Spain and Portugal.