21st Century Grammar Handbook (33 page)

In the past tense, subjunctive forms are the same as the indicative past except for “be,” which uses “were” in all circumstances, as in the first example.

The oddity of the subjunctive forms has led to their virtual disappearance from spoken language and has contributed to their fading use in writing. But they are correct and clear and should be used in all situations calling for formal
standard English
or when standards are unclear and one tries to err on the side of caution.

The typical situations in which subjunctive should appear are
clauses
that are introduced by
“if,”
“as if,” and “as though”: “If I were there, my friend could visit me” clauses that convey requests, requirements, demands, or suggestions and start with
“that”
(as in the initial example);
and clauses that convey a wish: “The other driver wished that I be responsible, but I hoped that I would not be held accountable.”

Subordinating conjunction.
Subordinating conjunctions link dependent and independent
clauses
in some distinctive way. The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are
“after,” “although,” “as,”
“as if,”
“because,” “before,”
“even though,”
“if,”
“in order that,” “once,”
“since,”
“so that,”
“than,”
“that,” “though,” “unless,” “until,”
“when,”
“where,” and “while.”

Subordination.
Clauses
or
phrases
that depend on a main clause and modify its meaning or add to it are called “subordinate” (or “dependent”). They are usually introduced by
subordinating conjunctions
or
relative pronouns
that indicate some relationship of time, location, causation, or the like: “When the mail carrier came, the dog was there.”

Subordinate expressions cannot stand on their own, no matter how long or complex they are: They must be joined to a main or independent clause so that their relationship to a main idea can be clear. One of the commonest errors is to leave elaborate subordinate clauses or phrases without an independent clause, creating an indecipherable sentence
fragment.
WRONG: “If the ball bounced fair and never
reached
the outfield wall, which was covered in a protective mat made from a synthetic fiber recently developed in the labs the university established to take advantage of commercial opportunities like this.” For all its length and piled up
verbs
and
nouns
and more, the example is only a
fragment, a dependent clause looking for a sentence to which it can be linked and thereby gain meaning. Be sure to check all long and complex clauses that begin with subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns to make sure they are part of a full
sentence,
complete with independent clause.

Subordination is a particularly useful way to add
emphasis
to a point. Putting one idea in a dependent clause and another in a main clause can add considerable force to the unsubordinated statement. Of course, like any device of emphasis, subordination can be overused, become tedious and overly complex, and fail to enliven or enforce your writing. In long stretches of sentences that use subordinating constructions, emphasis often comes by an abrupt switch to simple declarative sentences of the subject, verb, object type.

Suffix.
Groups of letters attached to the ends of words or parts of words to make new meanings, new grammatical forms, or new nuances of meaning are called “suffixes”: “teach—teacher” “tender—tender
ness
”; “clear—clar
ity
—clear
ing
”; “vis
ion
—vi
sibility.
”

Suffixes may attach to the common
demonstrative
form or
case
of a word or to its
root,
the smallest cluster of letters that still conveys the word’s fundamental meaning (“clear” and “ciar-” as well as “vis-” in the examples). The roots that end with a
hyphen
are those that don’t stand as words by themselves and must always have some ending attached to become independent words. From words or roots suffixes can make
nouns
of various kinds and meanings,
verbs, adjectives,
or
adverbs.
From the root “assum-,” for
instance, come the noun “assump
tion
,” the verb “assume,” and the adjective “assum
able.
” Roots or words can form more than one noun, verb, or adjective with different suffixes: “Real” can become the nouns “real
ity
” or “real
ism
,” with quite different meanings.

The list below records the major suffixes and the meanings they usually add to a word or root.

Sung.
See
sing.

Sunk.
See
sink.

Superlative.
In
comparison
the highest degree is called “superlative”: “Superlative is the highest degree.” In the example “highest” is a typical superlative, formed by adding
“-est”
to the simple form of the
adjective
“high.” The same pattern applies to most
one-syllable
or short adjectives and
adverbs.
Longer adverbs and adjectives form the superlative by combining “most” and the simple form: “Superlative is not the most acceptable form of the adjective. One most commonly sees the simple form.” Note that these compound
modifiers
are never hyphenated. Since the line between long and short modifiers is not very clear, it is necessary to check a
dictionary
or reference
grammar
to be sure that an “est” superlative form exists. See also
compound word
and
hyphen.

There are many irregular adjectives and adverbs, the most common of which are listed here with their unpredictable superlative forms:
“bad
(badly), worst”
“good, best” “ill,
worst”
“little,
least (not in sense of size; little, littlest)”
“many,
most”
“much,
most”
“some”
and “well, best.” These words have unexpected comparative forms as well.

Superlatives can be used only when comparison extends beyond two things or people: “Superlative is the highest degree of the three levels of comparison.” WRONG: “Johnson is the best of the two skaters.” RIGHT: “Johnson is the better of the two skaters. Johnson is the best skater in the whole class.”
Standard English
permits only this use of the superlative and comparative, while more
colloquial
usage allows superlative when
emphasis
is sought. In no circumstances should “most” be added to an adjective or adverb that has already taken the “est” superlative form. WRONG: “Johnson is the most fastest skater in the world.” RIGHT: “Johnson is the fastest skater in the world.”

Make sure that superlatives (especially when they appear as
subject complements
in
predicates
after
linking verbs)
have a clear link to the thing they are being compared to. WRONG: “Johnson is the fastest.” Unless there is a good deal of surrounding text to make it clear in what way Johnson is the fastest what, this sentence would be better and more complete if it added something like “skater in the world.” In everyday speech, “the greatest” and similar unconnected superlatives are tolerable as empty expressions of enthusiasm or agreement. But in more formal writing, it is unfair to leave the
audience
to guess what is being compared to what. See also-
er.

Swam.
See
swim.

Swim, swam, swum.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Swing, swung, swung.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Swung.
See
swing.

Syllabification.
See
syllable.

Syllable, syllabification.
Words fall into more or less natural segments that are called “syllables.” It is important to know where syllables fall in order to add
hyphens
when words are divided between lines typographically:

In the example one word is hyphenated at the end of a syllable, but another word could have been broken across lines as well: “sentence.” No other word in the example should be hyphenated at a line end because all the other words are single-syllable words, which should never be hyphenated.

Many patterns of syllabification do not follow the segmentation suggested by the sound of words. It is necessary to check a
dictionary
to be sure that all words divided over lines are broken correctly.

Some general
rules
exist to guide hyphenation choices, but they should be followed with caution and a dictionary consulted in most instances. If a
computer
program divides words for you, be careful that it is following the standard dictionaries and not applying rules that can fool you and it.

Symbol.
typographical elements that appear in documents but that are not letters,
punctuation, numbers,
or the like are called “symbols”: “You get 10% off on that purchase.” The
percent
sign (%) is a symbol.

Other common symbols include @, #, $, &, *, +, =, and ø. In formal nonscientific, noneconomic writing these symbols are usually spelled out rather than appearing as symbols. The major exception is the
dollar
sign ($), which is acceptable in any prose. As our lives become more pervaded by science, economics, business, and other kinds of writing and thinking that commonly use symbols, it becomes more acceptable not to spell them out in many circumstances. The percent sign is increasingly common in more formal writing. See
scientific language.

The use of symbols rather than spelling them out can also be used for
emphasis:
“Communism = socialism + electrification!” This old slogan from the time of the Russian Revolution was first coined in a speech. But it was later written with symbols to suggest that communism was a mathematical and scientific certainty and not just a political system.

Consult any local or specific
style
manuals that guide writing for your
audience.

Synonym.
Words that mean more or less the same thing are called “synonyms”: “‘Short’ and ‘shrimpy’ are synonyms, although one is simply descriptive and the other is too
colloquial
to use in formal statements about people.” Very often synonyms have similar definitions but quite different qualities, as in the example. For that reason, synonyms cannot simply be substituted for other words to
vary or enliven your statements. You must pay attention not just to the basic meaning of a word but also to what it suggests—to its connotation, which can vary depending on the circumstances and the
audience.
So you should be cautious when you use a regular
dictionary
or a special dictionary of synonyms; choose synonyms not only for their similar senses but for the affect they will have on those who hear or read them.

Take, took, taken.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Taken.
See
take.

Taught.
See
teach.

Teach, taught, taught.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Tear, tore, torn.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.