1775 (102 page)

49.
Naval Documents,
op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 7–8.

50.
Volo, op. cit., p. 72.

Chapter 15: Red, White, and Black

1.
Kranish, op. cit., p. 93; Holton, op. cit., p. 214.

2.
Simon Schama,
Rough Crossings
(New York: HarperCollins, 2006), p. 16.

3.
Ibid., p. 8.

4.
Smith,
Colonists in Bondage,
op. cit., p. 262.

5.
Schama, op. cit., pp. 3–18; Alfred W. Blumrosen and Ruth G. Blumrosen,
Slave Nation
(Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks, 2005), pp. 35–38.

6.
Schama, op. cit., p. 66.

7.
McDonnell, op. cit., p. 23.

8.
Colin G. Calloway,
The American Revolution in Indian Country
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 12, 16, 85–100.

9.
Ibid., pp. 26, 88–89, 92, 95.

10.
Ibid., p. 93. General Gage’s proposals for British use of Indians are collected and cited in Allen French,
First Year,
op. cit., p. 408.

11.
Calloway, op. cit., pp. 68–76.

12.
William T. Hagan,
Longhouse Diplomacy and Frontier Warfare
(Albany, N.Y.: Office of State History, 1976), pp. 11–12.

13.
Allan W. Eckert,
The Wilderness War
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), pp. 70–71.

14.
J. Edwin Hendricks,
Charles Thomson
(Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1979), p. 16.

15.
Distrust of Dunmore’s motives in October 1774 grew in the spring of 1775 as his April and May behavior became hugely suspect in Patriot eyes. However, the chronology of Dunmore’s changing relations with the Shawnee after the October battle and initial peace talks is not clear. Dunmore took some of the Shawnee warriors given to him as hostages back to Williamsburg that winter, but during the winter they were treated as guests, and by April and May, they seem to have been as much bodyguards for Dunmore as hostages. According to Charles Campbell’s
History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia
(Philadelphia: 1860), pp. 607–8, Dunmore armed his Shawnee “hostages”on April 20. In February, John Connolly, his western lieutenant, visited the governor in Virginia and was instructed to secure the Indians for the king. Thwaits and Kellogg, supra., p. 19. It is easy to see why Virginian suspicions might have been rising that winter.

16.
Hume, op. cit., p. 164.

17.
Reuben Thwaits and Louise Kellogg,
The Revolution on the Upper Ohio
(Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1908), p. 18.

18.
Ibid., p. 137.

19.
Gregory Schaaf,
Wampum Belts and PeaceTrees
(Golden, Colo.: Fulcrum Publishing, 1990), pp. 31–32.

20.
Colin G. Callaway,
The Shawnees and the War for America
(New York: Viking Penguin, 2007), pp. 59–65.

21.
Coleman, op. cit., pp. 113–14.

22.
Kenneth Morgan,
Slavery and Servitude in Colonial North America
(New York: New York University Press, 2001), p. 44.

23.
Holton, op. cit., p.178; Jordan and Walsh,
White Cargo,
op. cit., p. 270.

24.
McDonnell, op. cit., p. 128.

25.
A. E. Smith,
Colonists in Bondage
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), pp. 283–84.

26.
Jordan and Walsh, op. cit., p. 254.

27.
“unrelieved horror,” Sharon V. Salinger,
To Serve Well and Faithfully
(Westminster, Md.: Heritage Books, 2007), p. 114; “horses or cows” and “parcel of sheep,” Jordan and Walsh, op. cit., p. 253.

28.
William Eddis,
Letters from America,
quoted in Jordan and Walsh, op. cit., p. 257.

29.
David Waldstreicher,
Runaway America
(New York: Hill & Wang, 2004), p. 22.

30.
William Eddis, quoted in Jordan and Walsh, pp. 256–57.

31.
Gary B. Nash, “Poverty and Politics in Early American History,” in Billy G. Smith, ed.,
Down and Out in Early America
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).

32.
Salinger, op. cit., p. 128; Smith, op. cit., pp. 7–8.

33.
Roger Ekrich,
Bound for America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 21 and 27.

34.
Waldstreicher, op. cit., p. 140.

35.
Ekirch,
Bound for America,
op. cit., p. 119.

36.
Bailyn,
Voyagers,
op. cit., pp. 206, 255–56.

37.
During the 1750s, Maryland governor Horatio Sharpe had estimated that his province alone had 9,000 indentured servants and convicts, totaling about 6 percent of the population. Bailyn, op. cit.,
Voyagers,
p. 255. Virginia probably had at least as many; and Pennsylvania, despite fewer convicts, probably had 6,000 to 8,000 indentured servants.

38.
Bailyn,
Voyagers,
pp. 255–56.

39.
McDonnell, op. cit., p. 261.

40.
Hoffman, op. cit., p. 201.

41.
Ibid., pp. 245–58.

42.
Hoffman, op. cit., pp. 116 and 135;
White Cargo,
op. cit., pp. 257–58.

43.
Smith, op. cit., pp. 262–63.

44.
Benjamin Quarles,
The Negro in the American Revolution
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1973), p. 72.

45.
Sylvia Frey,
Water from the Rock
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 60.

46.
Quarles, op. cit., p. 60.

47.
Ibid., pp. viii–ix.

48.
Ibid., p. 78.

49.
Sylvia R. Frey, op. cit., pp. 45–80.

50.
Ibid., p. 45.

51.
Ibid., p. 53.

52.
Ibid., pp. 53, 60.

53.
July letter, Hume, op. cit., p. 327; officers sent, Hume, op. cit., p. 283.

54.
Frey, op. cit., p. 55.

55.
Ibid., pp. 54–55 and 66–67.

56.
Ibid., pp. 66–67.

57.
Ibid., p. 67.

58.
Hoffman, op. cit., p. 148.

59.
Jeffrey J. Crow,
The Black Experience in Revolutionary North Carolina
(Raleigh: North Carolina Divisions of Archives and History, 1977), p. 56.

60.
Ibid., p. 58.

61.
Frey, op. cit., p. 62.

62.
Crow, op. cit., p. 61.

63.
Ibid., pp. 57–58.

64.
Frey, op. cit., p. 56.

65.
Robert A. Olwell, “Domestick Enemies,”
Journal of Southern History
55, no. 1 (February 1989), pp. 28–33.

66.
Sylvia Frey, “Between Slavery and Freedom: Virginia Blacks in the American Revolution,”
Journal of Southern History
49, no. 3 (August 1983), p. 385.

67.
Olwell, “Domestic Enemies,” op. cit., p. 46.

68.
Gordon Burns Smith,
Morningstars of Liberty: The Revolutionary War in Georgia, 1775–1783
(Nashville, Tenn.: Boyd Publishing, 2006), pp. 56-57.

69.
McDonnell, op. cit., pp. 227–28.

70.
The details can be found in Patrick Charles,
Washington’s Decision
(privately printed, 2005), pp. 134–35.

71.
Ibid., pp. 61–77.

72.
Alan Gallay,
The Indian Slave Trade
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), pp. 8–9.

73.
Pekka Hämäläinen,
The Comanche Empire
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), p. 14.

74.
Ibid., p. 79, 153–54.

75.
Giles Milton,
White Gold: The Extraordinary Tale of Thomas Pellow and North Africa’s One Million European Slaves
(London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2004), pp. 99, 222, 270–71.

Chapter 16: Divided National Opinion and Britain’s Need to Hire Mercenaries

1.
John Brewer,
The Sinews of Power
(New York: Knopf, 1989), p. xvii.

2.
The 36,000 figure comes from Stephen Conway,
The British Isles and the War of American Independence
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 13.

3.
William Urban,
Bayonets for Hire
(London: Greenhill, 2007), p. 253.

4.
Paul Langford,
A Polite and Commercial People, England 1727–1783
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 228–29.

5.
Three books illustrate this new depth and complexity on divisions within Britain during the American Revolution: Paul Langford’s
A Polite and Commercial People, England 1727–1783
(1989), Linda Colley’s
Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837
(1992), and Stephen Conway’s
The British Isles and the American War of Independence
(2000). All three looked beyond the old insistence on British unity and documented considerable disunity, Colley to the point of perceiving a civil war in the English-speaking world. All saw Tories and the Church of England regaining political importance in the 1760s. The mobilization of Irish and Scottish Catholics for service in the British Army during the American Revolution was manifest, and Langford reiterated Sir George O. Trevelyan’s early-twentieth-century point about how even in England, British military recruitment fared best in old Jacobite strongholds.

6.
George O. Trevelyan,
History of the American Revolution,
op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 7–8.

7.
Watson, op. cit., p. 203.

8.
Brown, op. cit., p. 156.

9.
For greater detail, see
The Cousins’ Wars,
chap. 6, “Support for the Revolution within the British Isles.”

10.
John Sainsbury,
Disaffected Patriots: London Supporters of Revolutionary America 1769-1782
(Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1987).

11.
Kathleen Wilson,
The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture and Imperalism in England, 1715-1785
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 287–433.

12.
James E. Bradley,
Religion, Revolution and English Radicalism
(Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 320.

13.
Colley,
Britons,
op. cit., p. 139.

14.
Conway,
British Isles,
p. 140.

15.
Bradley, op. cit., pp. 360–409.

16.
Paul Langford, “Old Whigs, Old Tories and the American Revolution,”
Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History
(January, 1980), pp. 124–26.

17.
James E. Bradley,
Popular Politics and the American Revolution in England
(Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1986), p. 127.

18.
See especially T. M. Devine,
Scotland’s Empire and the Shaping of the Americas, 1600-1815
(London: Penguin Books, 2003), chap. 14, “Empire and the Transformation of Scotland.”

19.
Conway,
British Isles,
op, cit., p. 184.

20.
Belief that Catholics in Ireland were supporters of the American Revolution dies hard. Ulster Presbyterians in the north of Ireland were lopsidedly pro-American, but the Catholic clergy, gentry, and merchants in the south were getting policy concessions and beginning to profit from the empire. Professor Owen Dudley Edwards noted that in an Irish-American bicentennial summer school in 1976 “a range of scholars as divergent in other respects as Professor John Murphy, Dr. Conor Cruise O’Brien, Dr. David Doyle and myself acknowledged that our independent investigations had all moved to the same conclusion of Irish Catholic hostility to the American Revolution.” Owen Dudley Edwards, “Ireland and the American Revolution,” in Owen Dudley Edwards and George Shepperson, eds.,
Scotland, Europe and the American Revolution
(New York: St. Martin’s, 1978), p. 124.

21.
David Smurthwaite,
Battlefields of Britain
(Exeter, U.K.: Webb & Bower, 1984), pp. 174–75.

22.
Conway,
British Isles,
op. cit., pp. 154–55.

23.
Trevelyan,
History of the American Revolution,
op. cit., vol. 2, page 34.

24.
Bruce Lenman,
The Jacobite Clans of the Great Glen
(Aberdeen: Scottish Cultural Press, 1995), p. 205.

25.
French,
First Year,
op. cit., p. 315.

26.
Conway,
British Isles,
op. cit., p. 157.

27.
Bradley,
Religion, Revolution,
op. cit., p. 386.

28.
Conway,
British Isles,
op. cit., p. 15.

29.
Conway,
British Isles,
op. cit., pp. 128–164; Langford, op. cit., p. 542.

30.
Conway,
British Isles,
p. 13.

31.
Ibid., p. 15.

32.
Trevelyan,
American Revolution,
op. cit., vol. 2, p. 46.

33.
Ibid., pp. 51–52.

34.
Lenman, op. cit., pp. 184–85.

35.
Lenman, op. cit., p. 207; Philip R. N. Katcher,
The Encyclopedia of British, Provincial and German Army Units, 1775–1783
(Harrisburg, Penn.: Stackpole, 1973), pp. 69–73.

36.
Richard B. Sher and Jeffrey R. Smitten, eds.,
Scotland and America in the Age of Enlightenment
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990), p. 91.

37.
David Dickson,
Old World Colony: Cork and South Munster, 1630–1830
(Cork, Ireland: Cork University Press, 2005), pp. 366–73.

38.
Conway,
British Isles,
op. cit., pp. 184–85 and 249.

39.
Owen Dudley Edwards, “The Impact of the American Revolution on Ireland,” in
The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad
(Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1976), p. 135.