What Hath God Wrought (134 page)
Read What Hath God Wrought Online
Authors: Daniel Walker Howe
Tags: #History, #United States, #19th Century, #Americas (North; Central; South; West Indies), #Modern, #General, #Religion
4. Wilburt Brown,
The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana
(University, Ala., 1969), 36. See also Joseph Tregle,
Louisiana in the Age of Jackson
(Baton Rouge, 1999), 23–41.
The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana
(University, Ala., 1969), 36. See also Joseph Tregle,
Louisiana in the Age of Jackson
(Baton Rouge, 1999), 23–41.
5. As late as 1834, an Englishwoman commented that “New-Orleans is the only place in the United States where I am aware of having seen a particle of rouge.” Harriet Martineau,
Retrospect of Western Travel
, ed. Daniel Feller (1838; Armonk, N.Y., 2000), 116.
Retrospect of Western Travel
, ed. Daniel Feller (1838; Armonk, N.Y., 2000), 116.
6. Remini,
Battle of New Orleans
, 31, 58, 132. On the distrust between Jackson and the Creoles, see Joseph Tregle, “Andrew Jackson and the Continuing Battle of New Orleans,”
JER
1 (1981): 373–94.
Battle of New Orleans
, 31, 58, 132. On the distrust between Jackson and the Creoles, see Joseph Tregle, “Andrew Jackson and the Continuing Battle of New Orleans,”
JER
1 (1981): 373–94.
7. Brown,
Amphibious Campaign
, 133–34; Jackson quoted in Reilly,
British at the Gates
, 287.
Amphibious Campaign
, 133–34; Jackson quoted in Reilly,
British at the Gates
, 287.
8. Quimby,
U.S. Army
, 814–15.
U.S. Army
, 814–15.
9. Remini,
Battle of New Orleans
, 98.
Battle of New Orleans
, 98.
10. See Quimby,
U.S. Army
, 895–900.
U.S. Army
, 895–900.
11. Reilly,
British at the Gates
, 300.
British at the Gates
, 300.
12. Some sources give British dead as 291; see Quimby,
U.S. Army
, 906.
U.S. Army
, 906.
13. Quoted in Remini,
Battle of New Orleans
, 162.
Battle of New Orleans
, 162.
14. For a judicious estimate of Jackson’s generalship, see J.C.A. Stagg,
Mr. Madison’s War
(Princeton, 1985), 498.
Mr. Madison’s War
(Princeton, 1985), 498.
15. See Donald Everett, “Emigres and Militiamen: Free Persons of Color in New Orleans,”
Journal of Negro History
38 (1953): 377–402; James Horton and Lois Horton,
In Hope of Liberty
(New York, 1997), 186; Don Fehrenbacher,
The Slaveholding Republic
(New York, 2001), 7–8.
Journal of Negro History
38 (1953): 377–402; James Horton and Lois Horton,
In Hope of Liberty
(New York, 1997), 186; Don Fehrenbacher,
The Slaveholding Republic
(New York, 2001), 7–8.
16. Reilly,
British at the Gates
, 320–21;
The Papers of Andrew Jackson
, ed. Harold Moser et al. (Knoxville, Tenn., 1991), III, 290, 316–17.
British at the Gates
, 320–21;
The Papers of Andrew Jackson
, ed. Harold Moser et al. (Knoxville, Tenn., 1991), III, 290, 316–17.
17. It is remarkable how many high-ranking officers on both sides in the War of 1812 were court-martialed for incompetence or cowardice: Other British officers included Generals Procter and Prevost; on the American side, Generals Hull and Wilkinson.
18. Madison later confirmed that the declaration “would have been stayed” if he had known about the British concession; Donald Hickey,
The War of 1812
(Urbana, Ill., 1989), 42.
The War of 1812
(Urbana, Ill., 1989), 42.
19. Some historians have repeated the claim; see Marshall Smelser,
The Democratic Republic, 1801–1815
(New York, 1968), 281.
The Democratic Republic, 1801–1815
(New York, 1968), 281.
20. Lord Liverpool to Lord Castlereagh, December 23, 1814, quoted in Irving Brant,
James Madison, Commander in Chief
(New York, 1961), 372.
James Madison, Commander in Chief
(New York, 1961), 372.
21. See James A. Carr, “The Battle of New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent,”
Diplomatic History
3 (1979): 273–82.
Diplomatic History
3 (1979): 273–82.
22. The definitive study of the effectiveness of the artillery in the battle is Carson Ritchie, “The Louisiana Campaign,”
Louisiana Historical Quarterly
44 (1961): 13–103; Major John Cooke is quoted on 74. See also Smelser,
Democratic Republic
, 280.
Louisiana Historical Quarterly
44 (1961): 13–103; Major John Cooke is quoted on 74. See also Smelser,
Democratic Republic
, 280.
23. Ritchie, “Louisiana Campaign,” 71–77; John K. Mahon,
The War of 1812
(Gainesville, Fla., 1972), 369; John William Ward,
Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age
(New York, 1955), 26.
The War of 1812
(Gainesville, Fla., 1972), 369; John William Ward,
Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age
(New York, 1955), 26.
24. George M. Troup of Georgia in the House of Representatives, quoted ibid., 8; italics in original.
25. See ibid., 13–16. The lyrics were written by Samuel Woodworth, author of another song of rural nostalgia, “The Old Oaken Bucket.”
1. U.S. Census Bureau, www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0027/tab04.txt (viewed Feb. 24, 2007).
2. Quoted in Gregg Cantrell,
Stephen F. Austin, Empresario of Texas
(New Haven, 1999), 112.
Stephen F. Austin, Empresario of Texas
(New Haven, 1999), 112.
3. Michael Meyer and William Sherman,
The Course of Mexican History
(New York, 1990), 361–69; Jonathan Kandell,
La Capital: The Biography of Mexico City
(New York, 1988).
The Course of Mexican History
(New York, 1990), 361–69; Jonathan Kandell,
La Capital: The Biography of Mexico City
(New York, 1988).
4. Nettie Lee Benson, “Texas Viewed from Mexico,”
Southwestern Historical Quarterly
90 (1986–87): 227.
Southwestern Historical Quarterly
90 (1986–87): 227.
5. See Timothy Anna,
Forging Mexico
(Lincoln, Neb., 1998), 34–76; Brian Hamnett,
Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824
(Cambridge, Eng., 1986).
Forging Mexico
(Lincoln, Neb., 1998), 34–76; Brian Hamnett,
Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824
(Cambridge, Eng., 1986).
6. See David Igler, “Diseased Goods: Global Exchanges in the Eastern Pacific Basin, 1770–1850,”
AHR
109 (2004); 693–719.
AHR
109 (2004); 693–719.
7. James Sandos,
Converting California
(New Haven, 2004), 113–14; Robert H. Jackson and Edward Castillo,
Indians, Franciscans, and Spanish Colonization
(Albuquerque, N.M., 1995), 44–51; Sherburne Cook,
The Population of the California Indians
(Berkeley, 1976), 43–44; Walter Nugent,
Into the West
(New York, 1999), 35–38.
Converting California
(New Haven, 2004), 113–14; Robert H. Jackson and Edward Castillo,
Indians, Franciscans, and Spanish Colonization
(Albuquerque, N.M., 1995), 44–51; Sherburne Cook,
The Population of the California Indians
(Berkeley, 1976), 43–44; Walter Nugent,
Into the West
(New York, 1999), 35–38.
8. See Russell Thornton,
American Indian Holocaust and Survival
(Norman, Okla., 1987), 15–41; David Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited,”
WMQ
60 (2003): 703–42; Elinore Melville, “Disease, Ecology, and the Environment,” in
The Oxford History of Mexico
, ed. Michael Meyer and William Beezley (New York, 2000), 222–26.
American Indian Holocaust and Survival
(Norman, Okla., 1987), 15–41; David Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited,”
WMQ
60 (2003): 703–42; Elinore Melville, “Disease, Ecology, and the Environment,” in
The Oxford History of Mexico
, ed. Michael Meyer and William Beezley (New York, 2000), 222–26.
9. Jedidiah Morse,
Report to the Secretary of War on Indian Affairs
(New Haven, 1822), 375; Alan Taylor,
American Colonies
(New York, 2001), 40.
Report to the Secretary of War on Indian Affairs
(New Haven, 1822), 375; Alan Taylor,
American Colonies
(New York, 2001), 40.
10. Loretta Fowler, “The Great Plains from the Arrival of the Horse to 1885,” in
Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: Vol. 1, North America
, ed. Bruce Trigger and Wilcomb Washburn (Cambridge, Eng., 1996), pt. 2, 21; Alexis de Tocqueville,
Democracy in America
, ed. Phillips Bradley (1834; New York, 1945), I, 342.
Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: Vol. 1, North America
, ed. Bruce Trigger and Wilcomb Washburn (Cambridge, Eng., 1996), pt. 2, 21; Alexis de Tocqueville,
Democracy in America
, ed. Phillips Bradley (1834; New York, 1945), I, 342.
11. Gerald Grob,
The Deadly Truth: A History of Disease in America
(Cambridge, Mass., 2002).
The Deadly Truth: A History of Disease in America
(Cambridge, Mass., 2002).
12. See David J. Weber,
The Spanish Frontier in North America
(New Haven, 1992).
The Spanish Frontier in North America
(New Haven, 1992).
13. Terry Jordan,
North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers
(Albuquerque, N.M., 1993), 152–53.
North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers
(Albuquerque, N.M., 1993), 152–53.
14. Richard White gave us the term in
The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region
(Cambridge, Eng., 1991).
The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region
(Cambridge, Eng., 1991).
15. See Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aron, “From Borderlands to Borders,”
AHR
104 (1999): 814–41; James Brooks,
Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands
(Chapel Hill, 2002).
AHR
104 (1999): 814–41; James Brooks,
Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands
(Chapel Hill, 2002).
16. Pekka Hamalainen, “The Rise and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Culture,”
JAH
90 (2003): 833–62; Elliott West,
The Contested Plains
(Lawrence, Kans., 1998), 49–71; John Ewers,
Plains Indian History and Culture
(Norman, Okla., 1997), 170–72.
JAH
90 (2003): 833–62; Elliott West,
The Contested Plains
(Lawrence, Kans., 1998), 49–71; John Ewers,
Plains Indian History and Culture
(Norman, Okla., 1997), 170–72.
17. Neal Salisbury, “The Indians’ Old World,”
WMQ
53 (1996): 435–58; Colin Calloway,
One Vast Winter Count
(Lincoln, Neb., 2003), quotation from 17.
WMQ
53 (1996): 435–58; Colin Calloway,
One Vast Winter Count
(Lincoln, Neb., 2003), quotation from 17.
18. See, e.g., James Carson, “The Choctaw Cattle Economy,” in
Cultural Change and the Market Revolution in America
, ed. Scott Martin (Lanham, Md., 2005), 71–88; Robbie Ethridge,
Creek Country
(Chapel Hill, 2003).
Cultural Change and the Market Revolution in America
, ed. Scott Martin (Lanham, Md., 2005), 71–88; Robbie Ethridge,
Creek Country
(Chapel Hill, 2003).
19. Rachel Wheeler, “Hendrick Aupaumut,”
JER
25 (2005): 187–220; Anthony Wallace,
Death and Rebirth of the Seneca
(New York, 1972); R. David Edmunds,
The Shawnee Prophet
(Lincoln, Neb., 1983).
JER
25 (2005): 187–220; Anthony Wallace,
Death and Rebirth of the Seneca
(New York, 1972); R. David Edmunds,
The Shawnee Prophet
(Lincoln, Neb., 1983).
20. Thomas Clark and John Guice,
Frontiers in Conflict: The Old Southwest, 1795–1830
(Albuquerque, N.M., 1989); L. Leitch Wright Jr.,
Creeks and Seminoles
(Lincoln, Neb., 1986). On the Mississippian civilization, see Bruce Smith, “Agricultural Chiefdoms of the Eastern Woodlands,” in Trigger and Washburn,
Cambridge History of Native Peoples: North America
, pt. 1, 267–323.
Frontiers in Conflict: The Old Southwest, 1795–1830
(Albuquerque, N.M., 1989); L. Leitch Wright Jr.,
Creeks and Seminoles
(Lincoln, Neb., 1986). On the Mississippian civilization, see Bruce Smith, “Agricultural Chiefdoms of the Eastern Woodlands,” in Trigger and Washburn,
Cambridge History of Native Peoples: North America
, pt. 1, 267–323.
21. Alan Taylor, “Upper Canada, New York, and the Iroquois Six Nations,”
JER
22 (2002): 55–76; David Skaggs and Larry Nelson, eds.,
Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes
(East Lansing, Mich., 2001).
JER
22 (2002): 55–76; David Skaggs and Larry Nelson, eds.,
Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes
(East Lansing, Mich., 2001).
22. Reginald Horsman, “Indian Policy of an ‘Empire for Liberty,’” in
Native Americans and the Early Republic
, ed. Frederick Hoxie et al. (Charlottesville, Va., 1999), 37–61.
Native Americans and the Early Republic
, ed. Frederick Hoxie et al. (Charlottesville, Va., 1999), 37–61.
23. See Margaret Szasz,
Between Indian and White Worlds
(Norman, Okla., 1994); and Theda Perdue,
“Mixed Blood” Indians
(Athens, Ga., 2003).
Between Indian and White Worlds
(Norman, Okla., 1994); and Theda Perdue,
“Mixed Blood” Indians
(Athens, Ga., 2003).
24. Cf. Meinig,
Continental America
, 185–88, 195–96.
Continental America
, 185–88, 195–96.
25. R. B. Stothers, “The Great Tambora Eruption of 1815,”
Science
224 (1984): 1191–98; Gregory Zielinski and Barry Keim,
New England Weather, New England Climate
(Hanover, N.H., 2003), 35; John D. Post,
The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western World
(Baltimore, 1977), 1–27.
Science
224 (1984): 1191–98; Gregory Zielinski and Barry Keim,
New England Weather, New England Climate
(Hanover, N.H., 2003), 35; John D. Post,
The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western World
(Baltimore, 1977), 1–27.
26. C. Edward Skeen,
1816: America Rising
(Lexington, Ky., 2003), 9–12; Allan Kulikoff,
From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers
(Chapel Hill, 2000), 80–83; Michael Barkun,
Crucible of the Millennium
(Syracuse, N.Y., 1986), 108–11.
1816: America Rising
(Lexington, Ky., 2003), 9–12; Allan Kulikoff,
From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers
(Chapel Hill, 2000), 80–83; Michael Barkun,
Crucible of the Millennium
(Syracuse, N.Y., 1986), 108–11.
27. Mark Lender and James Martin,
Drinking in America
(New York, 1987), 30–40.
Drinking in America
(New York, 1987), 30–40.
28. As an English visitor, William Faux, complained in 1819; quoted in Suellen Hoy,
Chasing Dirt
(New York, 1995), 7–8. The physician is cited in Charles Rosenberg,
The Cholera Years
(Chicago, 1987), 18.
Chasing Dirt
(New York, 1995), 7–8. The physician is cited in Charles Rosenberg,
The Cholera Years
(Chicago, 1987), 18.
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