The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia (67 page)

1
Hannah Arendt,
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1951), 388.

2
J. Edgar Hoover Official and Confidential Files, FBI Confidential Files, Library of Congress Manuscripts, Washington, D.C.

3
Dennis J. Dunn,
Caught Between Roosevelt and Stalin: America’s Ambassadors to Moscow
(Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1998), 236.

4
Elizabeth Kimball MacLean,
Joseph E. Davies: Envoy to the Soviets
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1992), 125.

5
Victor Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom: The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Official
(New York: Scribner’s, 1946), 198.

6
Ibid., 198, 289.

7
Joseph Berger,
Shipwreck of a Generation: The Memoirs of Joseph Berger
(London: Harvill, 1971), 244.

8
Kravchenko,
I Chose Justice: An Account of the Action for Libel Brought by the Author Against “Les Lettres Françaises”
(London: Robert Hale, 1951), 18-19.

9
Paramount News, Feb. 2, 1949, 200-PN-8.46, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

10
Kravchenko,
I Chose Justice,
327-30.

11
Pierre Rigoulet, Stéphane Courtois, and Martin Malia,
The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, and Repression
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 550, 750, xv, xvii.

12
Robert Conquest,
The Great Terror: A Reassessment
(London: Hutchinson, 1990), 472-75.

13
Maurice Thorez, quoted from “Intelligence Reports on the USSR,” 1942-1960, Box 10, Entry 5514, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

14
Malia,
The Black Book of Communism,
xv.

15
André Gide,
Back from the USSR,
trans. Dorothy Bussy (London: Secker and Warburg, 1937), 62-63, originally published as
Retour de l’U.R.S.S.
(Paris: Gallimard, 1936).

16
André Gide,
Afterthoughts: A Sequel to Back from the USSR,
trans. Dorothy Bussy (London: Secker and Warburg, 1937), 7-68.

17
Seth Mydans, “First Meeting for Two Sons of a Defector,”
New York Times,
Jan. 4, 1992.

18
Vladimir Petrov,
It Happens in Russia: Seven Years Forced Labour in the Siberian Goldfields
(London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1951), 243.

19
The attitude of American academia to the Soviet Union can be partially explained by a letter from the office of the president of the University of Chicago, dated May 17, 1945, asking for Ambassador Harriman’s help with the publication of a “message to the American people” from Marshal Joseph Stalin: “
Some twenty to thirty thousand words or longer . . . in which he expressed quite frankly the contribution Russia has made toward world unity . . . The publication of Mr. Stalin’s writings by a great American University can only redound to the good of the world
” (800.1 Stalin Moscow Post 1945, Box 82, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland). A similar example is the intervention, in October 1945, of Charles B. Rugg, an attorney acting for Harvard University in a letter to the Legal Division of the State Department asking them to support Harvard’s refusal to return the manuscript of Trotsky’s
Life of Stalin:
“
In view of the possible effect on Soviet-American relations, Harvard does not wish to release the documents
”(711.61/10-2545, Box 3332, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland).

20
Norman D. Markowitz,
The Rise and Fall of the People’s Century: Henry A. Wallace and American Liberalism, 1941-1948
(New York: Free Press, 1973), 188-89.

21
Henry Wallace interview with Dean Albertson, Nov. 1950-May 1951, 5123; Columbia University Oral History Collection, Columbia University, New York.

22
Adam Hochschild,
The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin
(New York: Viking, 1994), 270.

23
Markowitz,
The Rise and Fall of the People’s Century,
309; Henry Wallace FBI File, 309-317, FBI Reading Room, Washington, D.C.

24
Henry Wallace diary, Jan. 30, 1950, Henry Wallace Papers, Library of Congress Manuscripts, Washington, D.C.; Markowitz,
The Rise and Fall of the People’s Century,
309.

25
Leona Toker,
Return from the Archipelago: Narratives of Gulag Survivors
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 79; Elinor Lipper,
Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps,
trans. Richard and Clara Winston (London: Hollis and Carter, 1951), 287-88.

26
Graham White and John Maze,
Henry A. Wallace: His Search for a New World Order
(Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 295-96.

27
Henry Wallace diary, Henry Wallace Papers, Library of Congress Manuscripts, Washington, D.C.

28
John C. Culver and John Hyde,
American Dreamer: A Life of Henry A. Wallace
(New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 469.

29
Owen Lattimore Papers, Box 33, Folder 9, Library of Congress Manuscripts, Washington, D.C.

30
Robert Conquest,
Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps
(London: Macmillan, 1978), 211.

31
John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr,
Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999), 12.

32
Whittaker Chambers,
Witness: An Autobiography
(New York: Random House, 1952), 466.

33
George N. Crocker,
Roosevelt’s Road to Russia
(Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1959), 250; Haynes and Klehr,
Venona,
331.

34
Crocker,
Roosevelt’s Road to Russia,
238-39.

35
Haynes and Klehr,
Venona,
202-3.

36
Christopher D. O’Sullivan,
Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2003, and
www.gutenberg-e.org
); J. Edgar Hoover Official and Confidential Files, FBI Confidential Files, Library of Congress Manuscripts, Washington, D.C.

37
Krivitsky FBI File, FBI Reading Room, Washington, D.C.; O’Sullivan,
Sumner Welles;
Irwin F. Gellman,
Secret Affairs: Franklin Roosevelt, Cordell Hull, and Sumner Welles
(Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 391-92.

38
George R. Jordan,
From Major Jordan’s Diaries
(New York: Harcourt Brace, 1952), 66-81.

39
Ibid., 92-94.

40
Hopkins quoted in ibid., 31; Henry Wallace interview with Dean Albertson, Nov. 1950-May 1951, 3713, Columbia University Oral History Collection, Columbia University, New York.

41
George R. Jordan,
From Major Jordan’s Diaries
(New York: Harcourt Brace, 1952), 122.

42
Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky,
KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev
(London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990), 233. In his book, Gordievsky qualifies Akhmerov’s statement, describing Hopkins as “
an unconscious rather than a conscious agent.
”

43
James F. Byrnes,
Speaking Frankly
(London: Heinemann, 1947), 263; Winston Churchill,
The Second World War,
vol. 6,
Triumph and Tragedy
, (London: Penguin, 2005), 579-80.

1
Michael Solomon,
Magadan
(Princeton, N.J.: Auerbach, 1971), 119.

2
Wringer report 71288-E-51-7623A, Box 998, RG 341, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland. The MGB and MVB refer to the acronyms given to the NKVD after the war, before its metamorphosis into the KGB in the mid-1950s.

3
“The Memoirs,” Defense POW/Missing Personnel Office, Joint Commission Support Directorate, Arlington, Va.

4
The Gulag Study, Joint Commission Support Directorate, Gulag Research Group, Defense POW/Missing Personnel Office, Arlington, Va., 4th ed., June 22, 2002, 30.

5
“The Memoirs,” Defense POW/Missing Personnel Office, Joint Commission Support Directorate, Arlington, Va.

6
Ibid.

7
March 17, 1945, FDR to Stalin, Map Room Papers, Sept. 1939-July 1942, FDR Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.

8
April 7, 1945, Stalin to Roosevelt, Map Room Papers, Sept. 1939-July 1942, FDR Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.

9
Bill Paul, “POWs: Four Decades of US Abandonment,”
Wall Street Journal,
Aug. 13, 1987.

10
Elbridge Durbrow letter dated June 22, 1963, Elbridge Durbrow Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

11
USIS News Bulletin, 321.4 German PWs, Moscow Embassy Confidential File, 1950: 321.4-350 France, Box 146, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

12
Brian Moynahan,
The Russian Century: A Photographic History of Russia’s 100
Years (New York: Random House, 1994), 204.

13
Jan. 25, 1956, 661.6224/1-2556, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

14
June 2, 1954, 661.0024/8-1054, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

15
“The Five Million Slaves,”
New York Times,
July 18, 1948.

16
Wringer report 52A-E-5522A, Box 998, RG 341, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

17
Wringer report 181385-59-B-1745-A, RG 341, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

18
Wringer report E-53-12631-B, RG 341, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

19
014.5 Detention USSR, Nov. 16, 1948, Army Intelligence Project Decimal File, 1946-1948, Box No. 279, RG 319, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

20
611.61251/2-1854, Decimal File 1950-54, Box 2826, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

21
611.61251/4-2554, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

22
June 19, 1952, 611.61241/6-1952, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

23
611.61251/4-2554-611.61251/6-2884, Decimal File 1950-54, Box 2826, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

24
Gavril Korotkov quoted in Douglas Stanglin and Peter Cary, “Generalissimo’s Last War,”
U.S. News & World Report,
Aug. 9, 1993.

25
The figure of at least 2.5 million is from “Korean War,”
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online,
Dec. 10, 2007; the figures of 36,576 American servicemen and -women killed during the conflict in the Korean Theater, 103,274 listed as wounded, 8,126 missing in action or unaccounted for—from Washington HQ services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, Dept. of Defense, Washington, D.C., published June 15, 2004.

26
Annex B13 to JCSB Triweekly Report, Aug. 21-Sept. 10 1993, Task Force Russia, Report, June 1993, Box 3, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

27
Zygmunt Nagorski, Jr., “Unreported GIs in Siberia,”
Esquire
magazine, May 1953.

28
Letter, June 11, 1958, to Jack D. Neal, State Department, from J. Edgar Hoover, FBI, Army Intelligence Project Decimal File, 1946-48, Box 280, RG 319; Report Lt.-Col. E. Nichols, Oct. 25, 1948, Army Intelligence Project Decimal File, 1946-48, Box 280, RG 319; Army Intelligence Project Decimal File, 1949-1950, Box 192, RG 319, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; Vyacheslav Molotov interview from Felix Chuev (ed.),
Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics; Conversations with Felix Chuev
(Chicago: Ivan Dee, 1993), 71.

29
Moscow Embassy Confidential File, Box 164, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

30
Top Secret Dispatch, Sept. 24, 1948, Kohler to Secretary of State, Top Secret Records from the Office of the Ambassador, 1948-1949, Box 3, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

31
March 23, 1954, Moscow Embassy Confidential File 1954, Box 191, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

32
Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, memo, Abilene, Kansas, quoted in “Korean War Pows in Siberia,” Associated Press, May 4, 1996.

33
Interview with Lt.-Col. (Retired) Philip Corso, Annex B to Task Force Russia Biweekly Report, Nov. 13, 1992, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland. According to Task Force Russia operatives, the archives of the Eisenhower Library in Abilene, Kansas, “
fully supported LTC Corso’s statements as to what the US Government knew or had to reason to believe about prisoner transfers during the Eisenhower adminstration.
” Task Force Russia (POW/MIA) Report, Feb. 20, 1993-March 5, 1993, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

34
13th Plenum, USRJC, Sept. 24-25, 1996, Box 1, DPMO, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

35
611.61241/8-2156, Aug. 21, 1956, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

36
261.0022/9-656, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

37
261.0011/2-554, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

38
261.1111/7-1856, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

39
321.4 USSR Moscow Embassy, Classified Records 1960-63, Box 4, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

40
William R. Tyler, July 27, 1960, American Embassy, Bonn, 321.4, Classified General Records, Box 4, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

41
261.1111/12-1256, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

42
611.61241/11-453, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

43
261.1111/7-1155, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

44
George Kennan, Secret Telegram to Secretary of State, Washington, Sept. 25, 1956; filed Oct. 2, 1945, State Department Confidential File, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; K. Belyaninov, “May I Not See the Statue of Liberty for as Long as I Live”
Komsomolskaya Pravda,
June 11, 1992, 2, from Concatenated JPRS Reports, 1992, Final Report DPMO, Redacted copies from Box 2, Box 2A, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

45
Pavel Sudoplatov,
Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness—a Soviet Spymaster
(London: Little, Brown, 1994), 270-71.

46
Galina Ivanova,
Labour Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System,
trans. Carol Flath (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2000), 190.

47
TFR 37-11 to 37-19, Minutes of the meeting between Comrade Stalin and Chou En-lai, Sept. 19, 1952, Box 3, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.