The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (43 page)

204
. David Lague, “On Island Off Africa, China Hopes to Wipe Out Malaria,”
International Herald Tribune
, June 6, 2007.

205
. Ed Harris, “Chinese Researchers Claim Comoros Malaria Success,” Reuters, March 11, 2008.

   
1
. David Ropeik, “Understanding Factors of Risk Perception,”
Nieman Reports
, Winter 2002.

   
2
. Author visit to Chikwawa, Malawi, February 23, 2007.

   
3
. John Peffer-Engels,
Chewa
(New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 1996), 17–18.

   
4
. Deborah Kaspin, “A Chewa Cosmology of the Body,”
American Ethnologist
23, no. 3 (August 1996): 561–78.

   
5
. Interview with Dr. Yamikani Chimalizeni, Blantyre, Malawi, February 19, 2007.

   
6
. Deborah L. Helitzer et al., “The Role of Ethnographic Research in Malaria Control: An Example from Malawi,”
Research in the Sociology of Health Care
, 10 (1993): 269–86.

   
7
. H. Kristian Heggenhougen et al,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
(Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2003), 43.

   
8
. Interview with David Smith, Blantyre, Malawi, February 24, 2007.

   
9
. Steven Feierman, “Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa,”
African Studies Review
28, no. 2/3 ( June–September 1985): 87.

   
10
. Peffer-Engels,
Chewa
, 19.

 
11
. Helitzer et al., “The Role of Ethnographic Research in Malaria Control,” 269–86.

 
12
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance
(Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004), 58.

 
13
. Heggenhougen et al.,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
, 10.

 
14
. June Msechu, “Community’s Perceptions and Use of Antimalarial Drugs in the Home Management of Malaria in Rural Tanzania,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 15, 2005.

 
15
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 7.

 
16
. Heggenhougen et al.,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
, 50, 56.

 
17
. Helitzer et al., “The Role of Ethnographic Research in Malaria Control,” 269–86.

 
18
. Ibid.

 
19
. M. Ettling et al., “Economic Impact of Malaria in Malawian Households,”
Tropical Medicine and Parasitology
45 (1994): 74–79.

 
20
. Ibid.

 
21
. Heggenhougen et al.,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
, 136.

 
22
. Michael and Elspeth King,
The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi: The 130 Years Since Livingstone
(Blantyre, Malawi: Montfort Press, 1992), 23–25.

 
23
. Author visit to Chikwawa, Malawi, February 23, 2007.

 
24
. Msechu, “Community’s Perceptions and Use of Antimalarial Drugs.”

 
25
. Tidiane Ndoye, “L’observance des traitements antipaludiques au Senegal: Le rôle des differents dispensateurs de traitements,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 15, 2005.

 
26
. Interview with Dr. Yamikani Chimalizeni, Blantyre, Malawi, February 19, 2007.

 
27
. Heggenhougen et al.,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
, 60.

 
28
. Caroline Jones, “The Social Reality of Malaria,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 15, 2005.

 
29
. Author visit to Gorgas Memorial Institute, Panama City, Panama, April 21, 2006.

 
30
. Sir Malcolm Watson,
African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa
(London: John Murray Publishers, 1953), 236.

 
31
. Presentation by Kamija Phiri, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi, February 13, 2007.

 
32
. Interview with Dr. Themba Mzilahowa, Blantyre, Malawi, February 14, 2007.

 
33
. World Health Organization,
World Malaria Report 2008
, Geneva,10.

 
34
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 221.

 
35
. Lars Hviid, “Immunology and Pathogenesis: Naturally Acquired Protective Immunity to
Plasmodium falciparum
Malaria in Africa,” Fourth MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 16, 2005.

 
36
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 146.

 
37
. Interview with Terrie Taylor, Blantyre, Malawi, February 2007.

 
38
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 221.

 
39
. Ibid., 169.

 
40
. Donald McNeil, “Revisions Sharply Cut Estimates on Malaria,”
New York Times
, September 23, 2008.

 
41
. Interview with Socrates Litsios, New Haven, Conn., November 8, 2008.

 
42
. Jones, “The Social Reality of Malaria.”

 
43
. Sheldon Watts,
Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 225.

 
44
. Donald G. McNeil, Jr., “Drug Partnership Introduces Cheap Antimalaria Pill,”
New York Times
, March 1, 2007, A3. Standing in front of a line of Malawian women and children melting onto a hospital bench waiting to hear results of their malaria tests, the malariologist Karl Seydel remarked, “They’d be relieved to get a positive.” Interview with Karl Seydel, February 2007.

 
45
. Interview with Martin Hayman, November 15, 2006.

 
46
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 314.

 
47
. Gerard Krause and Rainer Sauerborn, “Comprehensive Community Effectiveness of Health Care: A Study of Malaria Treatment in Children and Adults in Rural Burkina Faso,”
Annals of Tropical Paediatrics
20 (2000): 273–82.

 
48
. Heggenhougen et al.,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
, 151.

 
49
. W. Fungladda, “Health Behaviour and Illness Behaviour of Malaria: A Review,” quoted in Heggenhougen et al.,
The Behavioural and Social Aspects of Malaria and Its Control
, 11.

 
50
. Tina Rosenberg, “The Scandal of ‘Poor People’s Diseases,’ ”
New York Times
, March 29, 2006.

 
51
. Patrick Brantlinger, “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent,”
Critical Inquiry
12, no. 1 (Autumn 1985): 166–203.

 
52
. Michael and Elspeth King,
The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi
, quoting Robert Laws, 40.

 
53
. David Livingstone and John Kirk, “Original Communications: Remarks on the African Fever on the River Zambezi,” letter to the editor of
The Medical Times and Gazette
, November 12, 1859.

 
54
. “Dr. Livingstone, the Great Explorer of Central Africa,”
Harper’s Weekly
, January 31, 1857.

 
55
. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, available at
www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk
, published in
Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London
, 1860.

 
56
. Michael and Elspeth King,
The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi
, 5, quoting Livingstone.

 
57
. Quoted in R. M. Packard, “Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World,”
Medical Anthropology
17 (1997): 179–96.

 
58
. Herbert S. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 185.

 
59
. Michael and Elspeth King,
The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi
, 30.

 
60
. Jeanne Whalen, “Novartis Cuts Price of Coartem to Help Fight Malaria in Africa,”
Wall Street Journal
, October 2, 2006.

 
61
. Interview with Bob Laverty, Yaoundé, Cameroon, November 12, 2005.

 
62
. “Developing Countries Slow to Order Coartem Despite Boost in Production,”
Kaisernetwork.org
, January 19, 2006.

 
63
. Andrew Jack, “Up to 10m Malaria Tablets ‘May Be Destroyed,’”
Financial Times
, July 24, 2006.

   
1
. Visit to Dyann Wirth lab, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, Mass., March 10, 2008.

   
2
. Roy Porter,
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 437.

   
3
. Daniel Pick, “‘
Roma o morte’
: Garibaldi, Nationalism and the Problem of Psycho-biography,”
History Workshop Journal
57 (2004): 1–33.

   
4
. Frank M. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 21.

   
5
. Ibid., 39–40.

   
6
. Dale C. Smith and Lorraine B. Sanford, “Laveran’s Germ: The Reception and Use of a Medical Discovery,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
34, no. 1 (1985): 2–20.

   
7
. “Introduction: Part One, Recent Research in Malaria,”
British Medical Bulletin
8, no. 1 (1951); Robert S. Desowitz,
The Malaria Capers: More Tales of Parasites and People, Research and Reality
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 167–68, and Gordon Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880
(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 11.

   
8
. Douglas M. Haynes,
Imperial Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 14.

   
9
. Smith and Sanford, “Laveran’s Germ,” 2–20.

 
10
. “North River Malaria,”
New York Times
, July 13, 1884.

 
11
. Smith and Sanford, “Laveran’s Germ,” 2–20.

 
12
. Desowitz,
The Malaria Capers
, 169.

 
13
. Haynes,
Imperial Medicine
, 14, 98.

 
14
. Ibid., 22–40.

 
15
. Ibid., 48, 51.

 
16
. David Soren and Noelle Soren, eds.,
A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery: Excavation at Poggio Gramignano Lugnano in Teverina
(Rome: L’erma di Bretschneider, 1999), 637.