Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China (79 page)

Index

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Abeel, David 72

Aisin-Gioro clan 4, 254, 289, 340, 357

Albert, Prince 314

Alute, Miss 99, 100, 101, 102, 108, 110, 114

America: American Christian missionaries in China 18, 24, 56, 72–3, 222, 260, 301–2, 312, 344; introduction of high-productivity foods into China from the continent 21; Burlingame Treaty, 1868 and 78–9, 79
n
, 258
n
; diplomatic presence in China 78–9, 130, 140, 141, 201–2, 252–3, 264, 271, 273, 297–8, 307, 311–17, 320, 323, 324, 326, 327, 335, 336, 354, 367; Zhigang visits 80–1; China sends students to 81–2, 258–9, 327; Sino-French War, 1884–5 and 137; Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882 258, 258
n
; treatment of Chinese within 258–9; Boxers and 262, 269, 296, 297, 298, 299, 312, 315, 355; Cixi’s American friends 311–24, 354; press begins to acknowledge Cixi’s reforms 316–17; Cixi’s wish to explore closer links with 355; Root–Takahira Agreement, 1908 355

Amherst, Lord 103

An Dehai
see
Little An

Anhui province 14, 307

Arrow (boat) 27

astrologer, court 17, 18, 94, 100, 110, 134, 150

Backhouse, Sir Edmund 34, 34
n

bastinado (punishment) 194, 244, 349–50

Beg, Yakub 130, 131

Beijing: Manchus take over 3; Inner City 4, 267, 268; Outer City 4, 267; at time of Cixi’s birth 5; Cixi travels outside of for first time 7; legations
see
legations, Beijing; Western troops enter during Second Opium War, 1860 29–35, 40, 43, 46, 55; Emperor Xianfeng and Cixi flee, 1860 30, 33–5; Cixi returns to, 1861 47; Boxers 108, 265, 266, 267–9, 271, 272–4, 275, 276–8; Western troops enter and occupy, 1900–1 108, 244–5, 276–9, 283–91, 292–302; Cixi flees, 1900 108, 278–9, 280–91, 292–302, 356; electricity in 124; railway in 127, 164, 210, 235, 309, 324, 330; flooding in 157; winter in 172; Armand David’s collection of birds and animals in 176; first university in 223; Cixi returns to, 1901–2 305–10, 311–14, 325;
see also
Forbidden City

Beijing University 223

Beijing–Wuhan Railway 127, 164, 210, 235, 309, 324, 330

Beijing, Treaty of, 1860 36, 37, 38

Beitang Cathedral, Beijing 274

Benoist, Michel 31

‘bestowing silk’ (
ci-bo
) 49, 99

Bi (employed to kill Cixi) 239, 242, 245

Binchun 73–5, 76, 80

Bird, Isabella 90, 91, 261

Bland, J. O. P. 240

Board of Regents 40, 41, 42, 43, 43
n
, 44, 45–6, 47, 48–9, 99

Boxers: Governor Bingheng’s support for 214; birth of Boxers (Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists) (
Yi-he-quan
) 259–70; Cixi attempts to suppress 259–64; reaction to birth of by Western diplomats 263–4; Cixi endorses mobilisation of to defend Beijing from Western troops 266; Seymour Expedition 266; birth of Boxer War 265–70; Red Lanterners and 265–6; foreign troops enter Beijing to protect legations 266; ‘Hairies’ (
mao-zi
) 267; ‘Secondary Hairies’ 271, 273, 283; fighting with Western powers 271–2; China declares war on Western powers 268–70, 271–8; Boxers given legal status and organised under princes sympathetic to them 271–2; Boxers run wild 271–6; siege of Beijing legations 273–4; massacre of missionaries and Chinese Christians 274–5; Viceroys disobey Cixi’s orders concerning 276, 277–8; Cixi sues for peace with Western powers 276–7; Cixi flees Beijing, 1900 278–9, 280–91, 292–302, 356; Western troops enter Beijing, 1900 283–91, 292–302; Boxer Protocol/Indemnity, 1901 295–300, 305, 310, 315, 357; Cixi returns to Beijing after 1901–2 305–10, 311–14, 325; Russia occupies parts of Manchuria during 353

Brenan, Acting British Consul-General Byron 240

Britain: First Opium War, 1839–42 and 6, 22–5, 26, 81; Second Opium War, 1856–60 and 19–21, 27–35, 36, 37, 38, 55; Hong Kong and 24, 28, 117, 216; Pekinese dogs brought to 32; Treaty of Beijing, 1860 and 36, 37, 38, 59, 64, 200; co-operative policy with China 58; Burlingame mission and 77; treaties with China over borders of Burma (1886) and Sikkim (1888) 139; Japan buys ironclad boats from 183, 186; Sino-Japanese war, 1894–5 and 187, 190; leases Weihaiwei, Kowloon Peninsula and New Territory 216; Cixi and its parliamentary system 225, 339, 342–3, 344; condones Italian attempts to gain Chinese territory, 1899 256; Boxers and 262, 264, 269, 277, 284, 297, 298; Wild Fox Kang and 239–40, 288–9; Boxer Protocol, 1901 and 297, 298; prohibition of opium trade and 331; treaty with China over Tibet, 1906 363–4

British Legation, Beijing 9, 59, 122
n
, 253–4, 274
n
, 294
n
, 312, 350

Brooks, Rev. S. M. 262

Brooks, Congressman Preston 77

Bruce, Frederick 28, 49–50, 55, 64

Buck, Pearl 335, 373

Buddhism 68, 90, 109, 160, 162, 177, 238, 272, 306, 314, 369

Burlingame Treaty, 1868 78–9, 79
n
, 258
n

Burlingame, Anson 76–80

Burma 130, 139

cangue (heavy wooden yoke worn as punishment) 244

Canton 19, 20–1, 22, 23, 23
n
, 24, 27, 28, 50, 63
n
, 81, 127, 141, 223, 224, 268, 276, 289

Carl, Katharine 10, 110, 165, 169, 175–6, 249, 249
n
, 274
n
, 317–22, 333
n
, 336, 354

Castiglione, Giuseppe 31

Cen Chunxuan 356, 358, 360

Censors (
yu-shi
) 57, 166, 195, 216, 221, 224, 237, 240, 250

Chang Yinhuan, Sir: Russian seizure of Port Arthur, role in 215–16; knighthood 215, 235; receives medals from Emperor Guangxu 220; on Emperor Guangxu’s change in favour of reform 220–1; Wild Fox Kang and 224, 226–7, 235–7, 239, 243–4; as Japanese agent 235–7, 243–4, 278; execution 243, 244, 284

Chang Yintang 364

Chen Guorui, Commander (‘Big Chief Chen’) 92–3, 95

Chen Lanbin 121

Chiang Kai-Shek 372, 373

Chiang Kai-shek, Madame 327, 372

China under the Empress Dowager
(Backhouse) 34, 34
n

China: after Cixi’s death 367–70, 372–3; first ambassadors from 76–80; annual revenue 140, 298, 325; anti-Western feeling in 66–7, 89–96, 259–70, 273
see also
Boxers; army and navy, modernisation of 58, 69, 122, 139–40, 141, 158, 160, 161, 165, 166, 182, 183–4, 186, 187, 188, 191, 197, 202, 223, 256, 264, 269, 330, 371; Boxers in
see
Boxers; civil service 64, 78
;
closed-door policy 19–22, 35, 55, 88; commerce made respectable in 329; conservative opposition to reform within 44, 71–3, 76, 77, 88–9, 115, 116, 118–19, 147, 183; Constitution Office 341; constitutional monarchy and elected parliament, steps towards 339–45, 346, 347; corruption in 7–8, 49, 63, 64, 66, 116, 140, 161, 186, 277, 298
n
, 299, 308–9, 343, 357; currency 22, 124, 156, 330; customs duties 20–1, 63–7, 69, 74, 122, 140, 182, 202, 208
n
, 298, 298
n
, 301, 317; debts 78, 83, 202, 212, 236, 298; droughts in 75, 124, 149, 259, 260, 261, 265, 276; economy/trade 6, 19–25, 27–35, 55, 63–8, 78, 81, 86, 88, 103, 122–3, 124, 126–7, 132
n
, 140, 149, 157, 175, 207, 210, 223, 285, 288, 331, 363, 371; educational reforms 69, 71–3, 82, 222–3, 299, 326–8, 330, 340, 341, 343, 344, 371; Electoral Regulation, 1908 342–3, 362; electricity introduced to 123–4, 141, 156, 158, 162, 210, 211, 331, 371; emperors
see under individual emperor name
; etiquette in 70, 80, 108–9, 146, 164, 206, 219, 313, 335–8; use of eunuchs in
see
eunuchs; exports 19–20, 64, 126–7, 223, 330, 331; famine in 13, 58, 124, 265; first movie made in 334; first national flag (Yellow Dragon) 122; foreign education as mandatory requirement for official posts 328; Foreign Office 58, 64, 66
n
, 69, 71, 73, 76, 88, 94, 119, 140, 157, 205, 209, 214, 220, 224, 237, 238, 248, 257, 263, 266, 270, 276–7, 336, 356; foreign powers scramble for pieces of empire 213–16, 256–8; Han Chinese begin to question and reject Manchu rule 328–9; Han Chinese required to abandon foot-binding 325–6, 371; ban on Han-Manchu intermarriage lifted 325, 346; imports 22, 27–8, 63, 64, 124, 126, 140, 141, 150, 157, 183, 298, 299, 331; industrialisation 66
n
, 69, 78, 81, 123–7, 128, 223; legal code 73, 83, 119, 259, 328, 329–30, 337, 350, 351; literacy in 6, 222, 343–4; literati in 4, 29, 49, 57, 93, 108, 119, 200, 239, 320, 343; under Mao 373; mining in 65, 66, 67, 69, 123, 141, 210; Ministry of Commerce 330; Ministry of Officials 5, 193; Ministry of Public Services 358; Ministry of Punishments 29, 244
n
, 349, 351, 359
n
; Ministry of Revenue 105, 160, 161, 182, 212, 213; Ministry of Rites 52, 189, 228, 229; missionaries to
see
missionaries; modernisation programmes 63–9, 70–82, 117, 118–28, 179–80, 223, 300–2, 305, 325–35
see also
Cixi, Empress Dowager; natural disasters in 124, 140, 182–3; open door policy 26, 35, 55, 57–60, 63, 96, 140; opium smoking/trade and 22–4, 81, 101, 108
n
, 121, 153, 197, 212, 275, 330–1; policing 301, 342, 358; Political Affairs Office 305; poor treatment of Chinese abroad 258–9; population numbers 3, 21, 219, 297, 327, 371; Post Office 123; poverty in 83, 84, 123, 124, 127, 134, 141, 165, 166, 265, 301, 373; Preliminary Assembly set up, 1907 (
Zi-zheng-yuan
) 342; press, expansion of 329, 332, 340, 348; Provincial Assemblies 342; punishments in 13, 29, 42, 49, 59, 62, 71, 87, 131, 146, 193, 194, 244, 329, 349–50
;
railways introduced to 65, 66
n
, 67, 69, 119, 121, 122, 124–7, 141, 156, 164, 207–8, 210, 223, 227, 235, 266, 267–8, 296, 309, 330, 332, 341, 360, 370, 371; Reforms of 1898 221, 222–3, 224, 228, 232, 235, 240, 242, 245; relations with other nations
see under individual nation name
; becomes Republic 370; Republicanism in 289, 347–9, 369, 370; sanitation in 301; silver as currency of 6, 14, 22, 29, 36, 61, 63, 73, 104, 122, 124, 140, 178, 205, 227, 287, 309; state bank, founding of 210, 330
;
Taiping Rebellion
see
Taiping Rebellion
;
taxation 7–8, 202, 212, 298, 298
n
, 301, 343; telegraph/telephone 65, 66
n
, 67, 69, 119, 123, 141, 243, 267, 301, 363, 371; Tianjin anti-Christian riots, 1870
see
Tianjin: anti-Christian riots, 1870; treaties with foreign nations
see under individual treaty name;
uprisings and mutinies in, 1911 370; vassal states 130, 133–7, 164, 181; wars and conflicts
see under individual conflict or war name
; women given more freedom in 326–7, 348

Chinese Eastern Railway 207, 227, 296–7

Ching, Prince 157, 162, 167, 173, 183, 188, 247–8, 257, 266, 272, 286, 296, 298,

312, 343, 366

Chonghou, Imperial Commissioner 92, 95, 131, 132

Chongqi, (father of Alute) 99, 108, 275, 287–8

Chongyi, Censor 237, 250

Chongqing 122

Christianity: ban on missionaries 20, 25, 26; Taiping rebels claim to believe in 27, 58; Zhigang averse to 81; riots against missions, 1870 89–96, 259–62, 322; Boxers and 259–62, 267, 268, 274, 275, 293, 300

Chun, Prince: marriage 18, 19, 26
n
, 46; education 46; Cixi’s coup and 46, 47, 48, 88; privilege of not kneeling to Cixi in everyday meetings granted 70; Little An execution and 85, 86, 87, 115, 129, 139; demands Cixi expel all Westerners and close China’s door 88–9; anti-Christian riots, 1870 and 92–3, 95–6; rebuilding of Old Summer Palace and 105; chooses burial spot for Emperor Tongzhi 109; nomination of son (Zaitian) as emperor, reaction to 114–15, 129–30, 145, 357; resignation from office 115; deaths of children 116; Cixi bestows favours on 116; becomes one of Cixi’s keenest supporters 129–30, 133; Cixi involves in Xinjiang crisis 133; war with France turns into Cixi’s ‘slave’ 133; put in charge of Grand Council 135–6; reaction to imminent departure of Cixi in favour of Emperor Guangxu 150–1; death of 157, 164; modernisation of navy and 161, 165, 166; draws up the Statutes 163

Church of England 262

Ci’an
see
Zhen, Empress

Cixi, Empress Dowager: selection as imperial consort 3, 8–11; names 3, 3
n
, 11, 15, 17, 42; family 3, 5, 6–8, 14, 17, 18, 94; education 5, 6; makes dresses/embroiders 5, 16; birth 5; childhood 5, 6–8; languages 6; semi-literate/writing 6, 56–7, 70; intelligence, intuitive 6, 48; self-confidence 7, 50; arbitrary punishment, attitude towards 7, 49; fresh air and unrestricted space, passionate about 7; corruption, attitude towards 8, 308–9; appearance 10–11; paintings of 10, 110, 317–19, 321–2, 333
n
; projection of authority 11, 56; enters harem 11–12; rank 12, 13, 15, 18; life in harem 13, 15, 34, 42, 43, 56, 82, 83; offers advice to Emperor Xianfeng 14–16; Empress Zhen and
see
Zhen, Empress; drawing/painting/calligraphy 16, 165, 176–7; opera, love of 16, 18, 146, 165, 177–9, 247; birth of son 16, 17–18, 19; flees Beijing during Second Opium War, 1860 33–4, 36, 39; role of during Second Opium War 34–5; childhood of son and 34; Old Summer Palace, rebuilding of
see
Old Summer Palace
and
Summer Palace; coup after death of Emperor Xianfeng, orchestrates 40, 42–50, 63, 86–7; becomes ‘Empress Dowager Cixi’ 41–2; executions/killings, attitude towards 48–9, 62, 131, 194, 240–1, 243, 244, 276–7, 278, 279, 310, 329–30, 348, 349–52, 351
n
, 372; twenty-sixth birthday 50, 51; rules with Empress Zhen as Two Dowager Empresses 50–2, 55–102, 113–46; coronation of son and 51, 52; rule behind her son’s throne 55–110; open foreign policy/pushes for amicable relations with West 55, 57–66, 96, 140, 141; yellow silk screen, conducts audiences from behind 56, 70, 75–6, 80, 93–4, 102, 113, 239, 311; Prince Gong and
see
Gong, Prince; role as main decision maker 56–7; encourages/tolerates criticisms 57, 65–6, 329, 340, 348; studies/takes lessons to improve her education 57; use of Western powers in defeating the Taiping Rebellion 58–62; quick to learn about the West and to grasp its ideas 60–1; promotion of Han personages 62; restores peace to China after Taiping Rebellion 62–3; recovery of Chinese economy under 63–9, 86, 325; expansion of foreign trade under 63–7, 122–3, 126; modernisation programmes 63–9, 70–82, 117, 118–28, 179–80, 223, 300–2, 305, 325–35; reaction to Western arrogance 65–6; industrialisation of China under 66
n
, 68–9, 78, 81, 123–8, 223; introduction of railway into China and 67–8, 124–7, 141, 156, 164, 207–8, 223, 309, 330; army and navy, modernisation of under 69, 122, 139–40, 141, 160, 161, 166, 182, 183–4, 223, 330; government of rejects some machine-age projects 67–8; ancestral tombs, attitude towards 68; Buddhism 68, 160, 238, 272, 306; conservative opponents to reforms of 71–3, 76, 77, 88–9, 115, 116, 118–19, 147, 183; educational reforms 71–2, 81–2, 223, 326–8; sends travellers overseas 73–5, 156; sends first ambassador abroad 76–82, 119–21; Grand Tutor Weng and
see
Weng, Grand Tutor; allows sending of teenagers to America for education 81–2, 223; Emperor Tongzhi (Cixi’s son) takes over power from 82, 84, 86, 102; falls in love with Little An 83–7; eunuchs and 83–7, 104, 150, 159, 164–5, 167, 173, 244, 286, 350; dislike of Forbidden City 84; execution of Little An and 85–7, 89, 93, 129, 139; nervous breakdown 86, 99; Prince Chun and
see
Chun, Prince; Tianjin riots against Christian missions, 1870 and 89, 93–6; mother dies 94; Emperor Tongzhi’s childhood and 97–8; Emperor Tongzhi’s wedding and 99, 102; Emperor Tongzhi’s rule and 103; Earl Li and
see
Li, Earl; death of son (Emperor Tongzhi) and 106–10, 113; deaths blamed upon 107, 108, 145–6, 242, 366; rules through adopted son 113–216; designation of monarch after death of Tongzhi/announcement of adoption of son for late husband 113–17; return to power after death of Emperor Tongzhi 114, 118; modernisation of Imperial Examinations and 120–1, 223, 245; efforts to end use of Chinese for slave-labour 121; threat of Japan and 122, 181–2, 207, 208, 211, 353–60; China’s first national flag, role in 122; telegraph introduced under 123, 141; coal-mining begins under 123, 141; electricity introduced under 123–4; currency, birth of national 124, 156, 330; textile factories, rejects idea of 127–8; recapture of Xinjiang and 130–3; vassal states and 130, 133–7, 164, 181; nervous collapse, 1878 132–3; Sino-French War and 1884–5 133–9, 138
n
; fiftieth birthday 135; treaties with foreign powers concerning Chinese borders 139; announces retirement and cessation of power to adopted son, 1889 140; legacy of reign through adopted son 140; toleration of religious practice 141, 340; increase in China’s annual revenue under 140, 325; shape of modern China and 141; Emperor Guangxu, relationship with
see
Guangxu, Emperor; Empress Zhen’s death and 145–6; announces that she would ‘continue to act as Guardian for a few more years’ 150–2; Emperor Guangxu wedding and 152–4; forced to retire in favour of Emperor Guangxu 154–5, 159; reduced influence under reign of Emperor Guangxu 156, 163–4, 179–80; building of
Yi-he-yuan
(the Gardens of Nurturing Harmony) and 159–62, 191
see also
Summer Palace; self-delusion 160–2, 191; Statutes bar access to government reports 163–4, 192; formal move into Summer Palace 164; Lee Lianying and 139, 164–6; loneliness 165; daily routine 167–72; hair loss 168; dress 168, 169–70; make-up 168; morning toilette 169–70; meals 170–1; tea drinking 170; foot massage 171–2; manicure 172;
k’ang
and 170, 172, 314; bedside reading 172; health 172, 360, 362, 363, 365; plants, adoration of 173–4; orchard 174; gardens, passion for 173–4, 319, 320; birds and animals, love of 174–5; dogs, breeding/love of 175–6, 319; parlour games 176; Peking Opera expanded under 178–9; prejudices against women, detests 179–80; Sino-Japanese War, 1894–5 and 181–2, 187, 188, 189–91, 196, 197–9, 202–3, 242; sixtieth birthday celebrations 189–91, 192–3, 202; reputation plummets 192; seventieth birthday 192, 334, 335; acts to gain access to government reports 192–6; allowed access to government reports 194, 204; tackles Emperor Guangxu’s favourite concubine 192–4; separates Emperor Guangxu from his friends and closes his study 194–6, 206–7; prevents policy-making privately between Emperor Guangxu and Grand Tutor Weng 196; Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895 and 197, 198–9, 200–1, 204, 213, 233, 299; war and peace with Japan blamed on 202–3; returns to retirement after war with Japan 204; loyalty, inspires 205–6, 287–8; influence at court returns 205–7; Russo–Chinese Secret Treaty, 1896 and 207, 208, 211; state bank, attitude towards idea of 210, 330; concentrates on pursuing pleasure 211–13; sister dies 211; attempts to use tax from domestically grown opium for full restoration of Old Summer Palace 212–13; foreign powers scramble for Chinese territory and 213–14, 215–16; Emperor Guangxu actively seeks advice from 220–1; ‘Announcement of the Fundamental Policy of the State’ and 221; cooperation with Emperor Guangxu in reforms 222–3; Beijing University founding and 223; importing of machines to process raw materials and turn them into manufactured goods for export, role in 223; Wild Fox Kang and 224, 225, 226–31, 232–46, 251, 288–9, 349–53; reaction to Emperor Guangxu’s alliance with Wild Fox Kang 228, 229–30; plots to kill 232–46, 251, 349–53; Emperor Guangxu becomes Cixi’s puppet after failed plot to kill her 238–9; punishments for those involved in plot to kill 240–5; covers up plot against her life 241–2; represented as a debauched despot 242–3; action against officials in the Kang case 244–5; accused of killing Reform movement 245; security around Emperor Guangxu, installs 245–6; detests her adopted son 247; false impression abroad of reactionary nature 247, 251; desperation to dethrone her adopted son 247–55; attempts to overcome bad overseas image with tea party for ladies of the diplomatic corps 251–4, 256; nomination of heir-apparent to Emperor Guangxu 254–5; legations take side of adopted son 256; Italian attempt to gain Chinese territory, 1899 and 256, 257, 258; on foreign powers bullying of China 257; Boxers and 261–3, 264–5, 266, 267–8, 269–70, 271–9, 299–300, 312, 313; flees Beijing, 1900 108, 278–9, 280–91, 316; holds power during exile from Beijing 283–8; Xian, exile in 284, 286, 289–91, 300, 305, 306, 326; stability of empire and faith of people in 284; inspires protectiveness and fear 289–90; contrast between Emperor Guangxu and 290–1; shift in status between Emperor Guangxu and 291, 311; invasion enhances authority of 291; concerns for treasures of the palaces 292–3; Boxer Protocol/Indemnity, 1901 and 296, 299, 305, 310; ‘Decree of Self-reproach’ (
zi-ze-zhi-zhao
) 300; issues decree that signals a new ‘learning from the West’ phase of her reign, 300–1; Western governments resolve to cooperate with 302; return to Beijing 305–10, 311; Political Affairs Office, forms 305; mellowing of 306; yearning to travel 84, 160, 306–7, 332; title of heir-apparent annulled 308; honours Imperial Concubine Pearl 310; attempts to charm foreign legations/diplomats after return to Beijing 311–17; Western women, friendships/relations with 311–24; Western press begin to acknowledge reforms 316–17; superstitious 317, 369; thoughtful side of 319–20; clothes as expression of cultural identity 320; Chinese annual revenue doubles under, 1902–8 325; ban on Han-Manchu intermarriage, lifts 325, 346; foot-binding, requires Han to abandon 325–6, 371; attempts to release women from their homes and from male-female segregation 326–7; foreign education as mandatory requirement for official posts, introduces 328; Han Chinese questioning and rejection of Manchu rule, reaction to 328, 329; regulation of the press and 329; revolutionises legal system 329–30, 337; commerce made respectable under 330; intention to eradicate opium production 331; photographs of 332, 333–5; restraint and discrimination during reforms 332–3; as China’s first movie ‘executive producer’ 334; very few reforms at court of 335–7; constitutional monarchy and elected parliament, steps towards 339–45, 346, 347, 362, 370; wish for throne to remain Manchu 346–7; Republican attempts to overthrow and 346–9; treatment of Han Chinese 346–7; assassination attempts 349–53; declining health 360, 362, 363, 366, 367; Tibet and 363–6; seventy-third birthday 365, 366; burial ground 366, 372; death of Emperor Guangxu and 366; attempts to sort out succession before death 366–8; will 367; death 367–9; legacy 371–3; capable of immense ruthlessness 371; desecration of burial place 372; cruelty, lack of 372; reputation over the last one hundred years 373; people’s love for 373